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In this paper, a wind turbine service sustainability is achieved by assessing grounding grids under steady-state and lightning-based transient conditions. An effective grounding grid is designed concerning IEC61400-24 standard, where Taif city, Saudi Arabia is considered a farming place. However, high soil resistivity is a challenge during the design. To accomplish the study, apparent resistivities are measured using Wenner method, in the field. A framework of multi-layer soil modeling is performed using the Sunde model, and it is optimally solved using the genetic algorithm. Using the optimal stratified soil, the wind turbine grounding system is assessed considering grounding resistances, electric potentials, and step voltages. The break-point effect is evaluated considering the designed grounding system. Then, the lightning-based transient study is investigated for both the healthy grid and break-point considerations. COMSOL Multiphysics and ATP/EMTP were used to accomplish simulations and modeling. The results ensure the effectiveness design of the assessed grounding system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Model for the design and control of an off-grid 100% renewable system is proposed. • Nine alternatives of solar/wind/different storages are modelled and optimized. • Evaluation criteria are cost, emission, and load voltage/frequency constancy. • Solar/wind/lead-acid battery shows the most economic and reliable alternative. • Lead-acid battery/supercapacitor is more efficient than battery only. The continuous rise of global electricity demand and significant dependency on fossil fuel-based centralised power plants are the main indicators of increasing greenhouse gas emissions, thus negatively affecting climate change and human health and increasing the earth temperatures. This alarming situation has demanded the transition to 100 % renewable energy to decarbonise energy use. However, the fluctuating weather resources, and high investment cost are the major challenges with renewable energy implementation. In this context, the combined integration of multiple sources with energy storage in a so-called hybrid renewable energy system was developed as a durable remedy for the previous issues. This paper proposes a joint and conceptual approach for techno-economic design and dynamic rule-based power control of an off-grid solar/wind hybrid renewable energy system integrated with a hybrid energy storage system that comprises a lithium-ion battery, lead-acid battery, and a supercapacitor. Such concurrent integration of 100 % renewable energy systems and hybrid energy storage systems is lacking in the existing literature. First, with the aid of HOMER software, the feasibility and optimisation analysis of nine different configurations was performed in 1 min resolution to find the optimal component sizes. Second, MATLAB/Simulink models were assembled for the winning design based on a dynamic rule-based strategy to investigate and analyse the system's dynamic response, power equilibrium, DC-bus voltage supervision and load voltage/frequency control against instantaneous and dynamic changes in the load or renewable energy resources. The proposed approach was promoted and validated on an actual case study for isolated residential community electrification in Saudi Arabia, in which a multi-tier framework was adopted to accurately simulate the stochastic energy consumption of the community's households. From the design results, the hybrid renewable energy system, which integrates solar, wind, lead-acid batteries, and converter with optimal capacities of 55 kW, 18 kW, 325 kWh and 42 kW converter, respectively, is the most cost-effective alternative with the minimum net present and energy costs of $232,423.3 and $0.3458/kWh, respectively. The system has the least unmet load with 13.5 kWh/years (0.02 %), thus ensuring maximum reliability and customer satisfaction. Meanwhile, the developed control strategy efficiently improved the dynamic response, the DC-bus voltage stability, and the load voltage/frequency during different climatological and load interruptions. Further, the use of lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors has effectively diminished the maximum overshoot of the DC-bus and load voltages by 50 % during all disturbances. In addition, the integration of supercapacitors proficiently saved 2.3–6 kW during wind speed change and 2–9 kW during simultaneous changes in the radiation and load. Overall, the presented method, together with the reported results, provides an improved understanding and highlights the extent to which the successful integration of hybrid renewable energy system and hybrid energy storage system can be used to develop reliable and sustainable energy access for off-grid areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]