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Background: Bartonellosis, caused by bacteria of the genus Bartonella, is a zoonotic disease with several mammalian reservoir hosts. In Somalia, a country heavily reliant on livestock, zoonotic diseases pose significant public health and economic challenges. To the best of our knowledge, no study has been performed aiming to verify the occurrence of Bartonella spp. in Somalia. This study investigated the occurrence and molecular characterization of Bartonella in dromedary (Camelus dromedarius, Linnaeus, 1758), cattle, sheep, and goats from Somalia. Materials and Methods: 530 blood samples were collected from various animals (155 dromedary, 199 goat, 131 cattle, and 45 sheep) in Benadir and Lower Shabelle regions. DNA was extracted for molecular analysis, and a qPCR assay targeting the NADH dehydrogenase gamma subunit (nuoG) gene was used for Bartonella screening. Positive samples were also subjected to PCR assays targeting seven molecular markers including: nuoG, citrate synthase gene (gltA), RNA polymerase beta‐subunit gene (rpoB), riboflavin synthase gene (ribC), 60 kDa heat‐shock protein gene (groEL), cell division protein gene (ftsZ), and pap31 and qPCR targeting the 16‐23S rRNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) followed by Sanger sequencing, BLASTn and phylogenetic analysis. Results: Out of 530 tested animals, 5.1% were positive for Bartonella spp. by the nuoG qPCR assay. Goats showed the highest Bartonella occurrence (17/199, 8.5%), followed by sheep (6/44, 6.8%), cattle (4/131, 3.1%), and dromedary (1/155, 1.9%). Goats, sheep, and cattle had higher odds of infection compared to dromedary. Among nuoG qPCR‐positive samples, 11.1%, 14.8%, 11.1%, and 25.9% were positive in PCR assays based on nuoG, gltA, and pap31 genes, and in the qPCR based on the ITS region, respectively. On the other hand, nuoG qPCR‐positive samples were negative in the PCR assays targeting the ribC, rpoB, ftsZ, and groEL genes. While Bartonella bovis sequences were detected in cattle (nuoG and ITS) and goats (gltA), Bartonella henselae ITS sequences were detected in dromedary, goat, and sheep. Phylogenetic analysis placed gltA Bartonella sequence from a goat in the same clade of B. bovis. Conclusion: The present study showed, for the first time, molecular evidence of Bartonella spp. in dromedary and ruminants from Somalia and B. henselae in sheep and goats globally. These findings contribute valuable insights into Bartonella spp. occurrence in Somali livestock, highlighting the need for comprehensive surveillance and control measures under the One Health approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Echinococcosis, or hydatid disease, is caused by the larval forms of taeniid cestodes belonging to the genus Echinococcus. Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis are the primary species responsible for human echinococcosis, and mostly they affect the liver. The disease course is typically slow, and the patients tend to remain asymptomatic for many years. Case presentation: A case of 19-year-old male Somali from Medina, Saudi Arabia, was presented to the Mogadishu Somali Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdogan Training and Research Hospital with the complaint of right upper quadrant abdominal pain and dysuria for 1 month. A thorough physical examination, laboratory examination, and imaging investigations, including abdominal sonography and computed tomography (CT), were conducted. Both ultrasound and CT scans revealed a cystic lesion in the right lobe of the liver, confirming the diagnosis of a hydatid cyst. Consequently, the patient underwent exploratory laparotomy. It was successfully managed surgically, and the definitive diagnosis was provided by the pathologist, confirming degenerated echinococcal cysts that contain abundant debris. Additionally, the patient received oral albendazole both before and after the surgery and after 7 months and is currently symptom-free. Conclusions: Hydatid disease in the liver may persist without symptoms and often goes undiagnosed due to the slow growth of the cysts. The diagnosis needs careful history reporting, physical examination, and appropriate imaging investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by abnormal, fast, synchronous neuronal discharge from the cerebral cortex. This abnormal excitation of the brain is usually short and self-limiting and can last anywhere from a few seconds to a few minutes. Neuroimaging and electroencephalography (EEG) are two widely used techniques to differentiate, verify, or exclude the diagnosis of epilepsy. The study aims to identify the frequency of EEG and MRI abnormalities in pediatric epilepsy and their correlations, aiming to improve diagnostic and treatment methods for these children.Materials and Methods: In this cross-sectional retrospective study, we evaluated pediatric patients aged 0– 18 years who visited the Neurology Polyclinic between July 2022 and July 2023, were diagnosed with epilepsy in accordance with the ILAE 2014 epilepsy guidelines, and had undergone neuroimaging at the hospital's radiology department. Demographic information and clinical data, including the patient's age, gender, history of trauma, and congenital infection, were assessed. In all patients, a surface electroencephalogram (EEG) and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were performed.Results: Our study recruited 102 pediatric patients aged between 0– 18 years, including 63 (61.8%) boys and 39 (37.2%) girls. An electroencephalogram (EEG) and MRI study have been done on all patients. An abnormal EEG study was seen in 79 (77.45%) participants, and an abnormal MRI was noted in 45 (44.1%) patients. The EEG and MRI were both abnormal in 34 cases (33.3%). The study found no significant correlation between magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalographic findings (P =0.779).Conclusion: We observed multiple abnormalities on neuroimaging in pediatric epileptic patients. Even though our sample size was small, our results demonstrated that there is no statistically significant relationship between EEG and MRI results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver caused by a variety of infectious and noninfectious agents, leading to a range of health problems. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) can cause both acute and chronic liver disease, and the most common virus that can be transmitted from mother to child and other modes of transmission are contact with blood or other body fluids during sexual intercourse, unsafe injections, or exposure to sharp instruments. Objective: To determine the seroprevalence and associated factors of HBV infection among pregnant women attending the Antenatal Clinic at Bosaso General Hospital, Puntland, Somalia, in 2023. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 302 pregnant women who underwent routine ANC at Bosaso General hospital from March 15 to May 15. Study participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. A systematic random sampling technique was used to identify participants. Data entry, editing, and cleanup of the collected data were performed by the principal investigator using EPI data, and data analysis was performed using SPSS software version 20 to examine the association between each independent variable and the outcome variable. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to determine associations. Result: A total of 302 respondents participated in the study, with a response rate of 96.8%. The overall prevalence of hepatitis B infection among pregnant women was 6.6% (95% CI = 4.0–9.8). Having a history of dental procedures (AOR = 5.52, 95% CI = 1.190–25.68), a history of blood transfusion (AOR = 5.02, 95% CI = 1.088–23.19), a history surgical procedure (AOR = 4.7, 95% CI = 1.014–21.76), or having a family history of HBV infection (AOR = 10.07, 95% CI = (1.27–79.63) were significant predictors of HBV infection among pregnant women. Conclusion: The seroprevalence of HBV was intermediate (2–8%) in the study area according to WHO classification. A history of dental procedures, blood transfusion, surgical procedures, and a family history of hepatitis B virus infection were significantly associated with HBV infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the use of percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD) for decompressive purposes in biliary obstruction in Somalia. The Mogadishu Somali Turkey Training and Research Hospital is the only interventional radiology facility center in Somalia, and prior to its opening in 2014, biliary procedures were done surgically or patients had to go abroad for treatment. The article presents the results of 25 PTBD procedures performed at the hospital, with minor complications occurring in 5 cases. The study concludes that interventional radiology significantly improves the quality of life for individuals with obstructive jaundice in low-resource countries like Somalia. [Extracted from the article]

A traumatic femur fracture is a significant cause of morbidity, affecting one to three million individuals annually. The present is the first study investigated the epidemiological characteristics, risk factors, classification, mechanisms of injury, and early management of femoral fractures in Somalia. This retrospective epidemiological study included all patients with a femur fracture who were admitted for four years between November 2018 and December 2022 to the orthopedic and trauma surgery department. We reviewed patient demographic characteristics, including age and gender, the mechanism of injury, injury characteristics, and the type of fixation performed. We reviewed the radiographs and classified the fracture using the AO/OTA classification system. During the study period, a total of 402 patients were treated for femur fractures; 256 (64%) were males, and 144 (36%) were females. The mean patient age was 47.7 ± 8.5 years. Regarding the anatomical location of femur fractures, the proximal (31A, 31B) was the most common, accounting for 50% of the patients. Femur neck fracture (31B) was the most common in the proximal femur fractures. Gunshot 82 (59.42%) was the leading cause of femur shaft fractures. Most patients with femur shaft fractures were males; 150 (86.20%) and 152 (64.47%) were young patients between 19 and 40 years old. Almost half of the patients (86) with femur shaft fractures had open fractures. The distribution of the mechanism of injury significantly differed according to age (p < 0.001). Younger patients (< 40 years) were predominantly injured due to gunshot injuries compared to elderly cases (> 60 years), where falls from standing height were the primary mechanism of injuries. There was a statistically significant difference between the mechanism of injury and gender categories (p < 0.001). Male patients were injured mainly by gunshots in about 40%, while 80% of fractures in female patients were due to falls from standing height. Female fractures occurred primarily in the proximal, while the males had an equal fracture rate for proximal and shaft fractures. Femur fracture causes significant morbidity and mortality. The study findings revealed that the most common femur fracture type was femur neck fracture, and low-energy injuries were the most common mode of injury in the elderly. Proximal femur fractures occur in older age and mainly in females. Gunshots were the most common cause of femur shaft fractures in Somalia, a country that has struggled with wars for over 30 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Kidney failure is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The incidence of kidney failure in Somalia has been increasing in recent years. There is no data available on the causes of chronic kidney disease (CKD) leading to kidney failure in Somalia. Methods: This is a multicentre, descriptive cross-sectional study designed to determine the aetiology of kidney failure among patients receiving haemodialysis in four major demographic areas of Somalia. The study was conducted over a one-year period, from June 2021 to June 2022. Participants were eligible for inclusion if they had been diagnosed with kidney failure, were on regular haemodialysis, and were over 18 years of age. Results: A total of 127 patients were evaluated, 84 (66.1%) were males and 43 (33.9%) were female. The mean age of kidney failure patients was 49.3 ± 12.2 years. They originated from various regions, 5.6% from the south, 29.9% from the north-eastern, and 64.5% from the northwest. The mean duration of haemodialysis was 4.4 ± 2.2 years. The most common cause of kidney failure in our study was hypertension (33.1%), followed by diabetes mellitus (27.6%), uncertain aetiology (24.4%), glomerulonephritis (7.1%), obstructive uropathy (3.8%), renovascular hypertension (1.6%), neurogenic bladder, polycystic kidney disease, congenital and hereditary diseases (0.8%). Conclusions: Our study showed the leading cause of kidney failure among maintenance haemodialysis patients was hypertension, followed by diabetes mellitus. To reduce the burden of kidney failure in Somalia, primary prevention of hypertension and diabetes and early detection and prompt management of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in high-risk populations should be a fundamental focus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction and Importance: Ecthyma gangrenosum is a skin lesion that can be caused by either bacterial hematogenous seeding or a primary skin infection. Despite being the most frequent causal agent, Pseudomonas aeruginosa is not the only bacteria that has been involved. Other types of bacteria may also be implicated in the etiology of EG: cocci bacteria, both gram-positive and gram-negative.Case Presentation: Here, we report the case of a 10-month-old male infant who developed ecthyma gangrenosum after a measles infection. At the time of admission, the patient had a high fever of about 40.3°C and appeared conscious. Physical examination revealed several skin lesions that were in various stages of development and appeared as nodules with a central crust and round, ulcerated, necrotic papules in the face, chest, and upper extremities. Laboratory tests showed CRP of 25 mg/l, LDH of 579 U/L, WBC of 15.06 × 1000/mm3, and absolute neutrophils of 1930/mm3 (12.8%). The result of the culture showed coagulase-negative Staphylococcus. According to the drug susceptibility test results, intravenous Vancomycin (20 mg/kg per dose, 3 times daily) should be started. A coagulase-negative Staphylococcus was eliminated as a result of this defervescence. The necrotic lesion was surgically removed from the patient.Clinical Discussion: Ecthyma gangrenosum is the all-over-the-body cutaneous manifestation of pseudomonas infection in sepsis patients. Patients who suffer from severe illnesses. Immune deficiencies commonly increase the chance of acquiring EG. Our patient had a history of measles, which led to neutropenia before developing EG. The management of ecthyma gangrenosum requires early identification and antimicrobial treatment.Conclusion: We describe a measles patient who developed coagulase-negative Staphylococcus ecthyma gangrenosum and had good results from both surgical debridement and systemic antibiotics. Our case serves as an example of the uncommon presentation of ecthyma gangrenosum. This example emphasizes the value of an early diagnosis and vigorous antimicrobial therapy in cases where ecthyma gangrenosum is clinically suspected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camel trypanosomiasis is the most significant animal disease in the camel zone of Somalia. The Somali camel is also found in the southern areas of Somalia, which have a high density of vectors, including Glossina. The economic importance of camels in Somalia is well recognized; however, little is known about camel trypanosomiasis, especially in the southern part of the country. A cross-sectional survey was conducted from November 2022 to July 2023 to discuss the importance and prevalence of camel trypanosomiasis in the Lower Juba Region using interviews and blood films, respectively. A total of 126 blood samples from seven herds from three sites in Kismayo district were conveniently collected and microscopically screened for trypanosomes. The seven herders were interviewed for their awareness and the importance of the disease in the area. The overall prevalence was 4/7 (57.1%) and 13/126 (10.3%) at herd and individual levels, respectively. The mean PCV% of the infected camels was (24.85±5.87%) lower than the others (26.64±2.68) with a p-value of 0.053. Significant differences in the prevalence were reported between herds (p-value = 0.005), sites (p-value = 0.005), PCV% (p-value = 0.001), body conditions (pvalue = 0.032), and mix-infection with other erythrocytic parasites (p-value = 0.019). Adopting a nomadic system, all the respondents were owners and men, and only one of them was unmarried. The Holy Qur'an was the level of education for all of them. Their knowledge about trypanosomiasis and its importance among other camel diseases, as well as their local names, was discussed. In conclusion, ranking third, camel trypanosomiasis is highly prevalent and moderately important in the region. Molecular studies on trypanosomes and tickborne pathogens, as well as their socioeconomic importance, are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is fatal neglected parasitic illness caused by Leishmania donovani. The diagnosis remains a challenge due to the non-specific clinical symptoms, especially in areas where infections like malaria and limited access to diagnostic tools coexist. Here, we describe a case of late diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis using tru-cut biopsy of the spleen and malaria co-infection.Case Presentation: Here case report, a 24-year-old patient from an endemic region of Somalia presented with fever, headache, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss for two months. Initially, the patient received symptomatic treatment and a blood transfusion but showed no improvement. Physical examination revealed fever, pallor, and hepatosplenomegaly. Laboratory tests showed pancytopenia and positive rapid diagnostic test for plasmodium parasite antigen. Despite three days of anti-malarial treatment, the symptoms persisted, and hepatosplenomegaly worsened. Further investigations, including infectious disease tests, were conducted, ruling out HIV, viral hepatitis, Brucella, and Leishmania antibodies. Peripheral blood smear showed pancytopenia and bone marrow aspiration revealed no evidence of infection or malignancy. A tru-cut biopsy of the spleen was performed, confirming the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. The patient received a combination therapy of sodium stibogluconate and paromomycin, leading to significant improvement. After completing treatment, the patient was discharged with normal spleen biopsy results.Conclusion: Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a challenging disease to diagnose, especially in areas where it coexists with other infectious diseases, such as malaria. Co-infection with malaria should also be considered in patients with fever and hepatosplenomegaly. A high index of suspicion is necessary for the timely diagnosis of VL, and a tru-cut biopsy of the spleen can be conducted in cases where other investigations are inconclusive in endemic areas. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment of visceral leishmaniasis are crucial to prevent complications and reduce mortality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bu çalışma 2001-2004 yılları arasında Somali’de siyasal şiddet olgusunu incelemektedir. Siyasal şiddet, karmaşık, çok yönlü ve çekişmeli bir siyasi ortamda ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu çerçevede araştırmamız radikalleşmenin siyasi mücadele içerisinde bir sosyal hareketin uğradığı muhtemel sonuçlardan biri olarak ortaya çıktığını iddia etmektedir. Siyasi mücadele beş farklı muhtemel çatışmacı ortamda ortaya çıkabilir. Ancak bu makalede çalışmamızın çerçevesini sınırlı tutuyoruz. Siyasal şiddetin ortaya çıkış aşamalarını devlet ve ulusal siyasi elitler ile çeşitli İslam Mahkemeleri arasındaki sosyal ve siyasi etkileşimleri fırsatlar sarmalı bağlamlarında incelemeye tabii tutuyoruz. Böylece söz konusu siyasi etkileşimin şiddet içeren bir siyasi sonuç doğurup doğurmadığını değerlendirmeyi amaçlıyoruz. Çalışmamız kavramsal olarak Charles Tilly’nin Çatışmacı Siyaset Paradigmasına ve bu paradigma içerisinde şiddet unsurunu daha kapsamlı şekilde tartışan İlişkisel Radikalleşme yaklaşımına dayanmaktadır. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generic outreach approaches are commonly used to target as many individuals as possible in a cultural community to achieve a greater response rate. However, this one-size-fits-all tactic is rarely effective. Community-engaged outreach practices have been successful with immigrant communities in Minnesota's Twin Cities. When practitioners, clinicians, and scholars engage in these practices, they not only build trusting relationships with cultural communities over time but also achieve mutual benefit, reciprocity, and the leveraging of institutional resources.

Background: WHO recommends attending minimum four ANC consultations during pregnancy to ensure early detection of complications. The objective of this study was to quantify ANC attendance and factors associated with it. Methods: Participants were randomly selected using the WHO Cluster survey methodology in Southern and Central Somalia. A paper-print questionnaire was used to collect all data. Outcomes of interest were: access to at least one ANC consultation, completion of at least four ANC consultations, initiation of breastfeeding and place of delivery, while exposures included factors related to the latest pregnancy and demographic characteristics. Associations were assessed through logistic regression. Results: Seven hundred ninety-two women answered the questionnaire; 85% attended at least one and 23% at least four ANC consultations, 95% started breastfeeding and 51% had an institutional delivery. Encouragement to attend ANC increased the odds of attending at least one consultation (aOR = 8.22, 95%CI 4.36–15.49), while negative attitude of husband or family decreased the odds (aOR = 0.33, 95%CI 0.16–0.69). Knowing there is a midwife increased the odds of at least four visits (aOR = 1.87, 95%CI 1.03–3.41). Attending at least four consultations increased the odds of delivering in a health structure (aOR = 1.50, 95%CI 1.01–2.24), and attending at least one consultation was associated with higher odds of initiating breastfeeding (aOR = 2.69, 95%CI 1.07–6.74). Conclusions: Family has a strong influence in women's ANC attendance, which increases the likelihood of institutional delivery and initiating breastfeeding. Women and families need to have access to information about benefits and availability of services; potential solutions can include health education and outreach interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have identified a range of terrorist strategies that militant groups employ to influence intended audiences, but there is scant empirical validation. Following Kenya's invasion of Somalia in late 2011, Al-Shabaab executed retaliatory terrorist attacks in Kenya with the strategic aim to compel the withdrawal of Kenyan troops from Somalia. Drawing on unique in-depth interviews with Al-Shabaab defectors and civilian witnesses to counterterrorism measures in Kenya, this article investigates the strategic motives underlying Al-Shabaab's transnational terrorist operations and assesses the effect these have had on the intended audiences. The empirical findings reveal that the attrition strategy has underpinned Al-Shabaab's major terrorist attacks (large-scale events) whilst their minor terrorist attacks (small-scale events) have been motivated by the provocation strategy, aimed at eliciting a repressive state overreaction against Kenya's Somali and Muslim minorities. Whilst the major terrorist attacks succeeded in fomenting the Kenyan public's anti-war views, this did not result in troop withdrawal; the minor terrorist attacks, however, engendered harsh state repression and draconian measures against Kenya's Somali and Muslim minorities, ultimately exacerbating existing grievances and channelling fresh recruits to Al-Shabaab. This article contributes to the growing literature on terrorist strategies, offering nuanced empirical insights to understanding the strategic motives underpinning transnational terrorist campaigns. The article demonstrates that transnational terrorism campaigns are rooted in the strategic need to influence different audiences abroad. Depending on militant groups' short- and long-term objectives, the type of attack indicates the type of terrorist strategy they will employ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coverage of COVID-19 vaccines in Somalia remains low, including among health workers. This study aimed to identify factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among health workers. In this cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study, 1476 health workers in government and private health facilities in Somalia's federal member states were interviewed face-to-face about their perceptions of and attitudes toward COVID-19 vaccines. Both vaccinated and unvaccinated health workers were included. Factors associated with vaccine hesitancy were evaluated in a multivariable logistic regression analysis. Participants were evenly distributed by sex, and their mean age was 34 (standard deviation 11.8) years. The overall prevalence of vaccine hesitancy was 38.2%. Of the 564 unvaccinated participants, 39.0% remained hesitant. The factors associated with vaccine hesitancy were: being a primary health care worker (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 2.37, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.15–4.90) or a nurse (aOR = 2.12, 95% CI: 1.05–4.25); having a master's degree (aOR = 5.32, 95% CI: 1.28–22.23); living in Hirshabelle State (aOR = 3.23, 95% CI: 1.68–6.20); not having had COVID-19 (aOR = 1.96, 95% CI: 1.15–3.32); and having received no training on COVID-19 (aOR = 1.54, 95% CI: 1.02–2.32). Despite the availability of COVID-19 vaccines in Somalia, a large proportion of unvaccinated health workers remain hesitant about being vaccinated, potentially influencing the public's willingness to take the vaccine. This study provides vital information to inform future vaccination strategies to achieve optimal coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article argues that historical frames we often find in news media discourse can skew the way we perceive distant wars, and that this can have a knock-on effect on international humanitarian response within a cosmopolitan framework of global justice. Drawing on an empirical exploration of recent "humanitarian interventions" in Ethiopia, Somalia and Rwanda, the article shows how historical frames largely reinforced the elite-dominated news frames of "their crisis", and "not ours", which explains the delayed international intervention to end it. I conclude that the non-intervention, or delayed intervention, of the international community on humanitarian grounds to end these crises was informed more by historical empathy/distance frames than empathy/critical frames in the mainstream Western news media discourse. (Contains 21 notes.)

Agricultural production is sensitive to climate variability, so climate change-agriculture sector nexus is topical in developing countries. To this end, this study examines the impact of climate change variables—rainfall and temperature—and non-climatic factors on maize production in Somalia for the period between 1980 and 2018 using the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bound test, dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS), variance decomposition(VD), and impulse response function (IRF). The empirical results of the ARDL bound test confirmed the presence of long-run cointegration between the dependent variable and the explanatory variables. Furthermore, the long-run results revealed that average temperature, average rainfall, and political instability significantly inhibit maize production in the long and short runs, but rainfall has a favorable effect on maize production in the short run. Furthermore, rural population and land area under maize cultivation have negative and positive effects on maize production in the long run, respectively—albeit they are statistically insignificant. The empirical results of the study are robust to different econometric methods. Based on these findings, the study emphasizes the importance of the de-escalation of conflicts and the implementation of irrigation facilities which will enhance the productivity of maize crop production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the macroeconomic impact of mobile money in Somalia using quarterly data from 2010 to 2020. Design/methodology/approach: This study applied the structural vector autoregressive approach to examine the response of the macroeconomic variables to the mobile money shocks. Findings: The results show that mobile money increases consumer spending by reducing transaction costs and enhancing access to finance, which promotes the expansion of aggregate output. This study also finds that mobile money helps exchange rate stability and price level maintenance, boosting trade openness. Moreover, mobile money is linked to the rise in real income due to productivity improvement and price stability. The results of this study indicated that mobile money has a short-run relationship with aggregate output, household consumption, price level, trade openness and real income. Through the Granger causality test, this study finds that mobile money has a unidirectional relationship with the exchange rate, price level, household consumption and trade openness. Originality/value: The empirical findings of this study imply that mobile money can create a wide range of financial services to improve the financial system in rural and urban areas; hence, it enables poor and rural members of society to make payments and receive-and-transfer money using their mobiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have shed much light on the positive correlation between foreign military interventions and blowback in the form of transnational violence, such as terrorist and guerrilla attacks. While the strategies of transnational terrorism have been widely addressed in the literature, the strategies of transborder guerrilla warfare have received little attention. Since Kenya deployed troops to Somalia in 2011, Al-Shabaab has carried out reprisal attacks in Kenya in an attempt to wear down their opponents. Using new primary evidence from Somalia and Kenya, I demonstrate that Al-Shabaab frequently stages transborder guerrilla operations at the margins of Kenya with the intention of provoking a violent overreaction from the Kenyan state against ethnic Somalis who dominate the Kenya-Somalia borderlands. The resulting repressive governmental response has strengthened perceived divisions and mistrust among Kenyan Somalis, sparked virulent public anger in Somalia, and reinforced the public image of Kenya as an unfriendly foreign occupying force. Despite the costly militant casualties, the findings reveal that militant groups prioritize transborder guerrilla attacks over transnational terrorist violence primarily due to the resultant state repression against their presumed constituency. These findings contribute to the broader analytical literature on militant organizations' strategic goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Launch site location selection is a critical managerial and technical decision-making problem in the space industry. The criteria obtained from a massive amount of essential factors, considerations, and pre-requests provide input for the assessment process. The decision-makers evaluate many candidate launch site locations considering various aspects during the evaluation phase. The best worst method developed recently is a multi-criteria decision-making process proposed to evaluate the criteria' weights in this work. The weights of technical, commercial, and safety, which are primary criteria, and twelve sub-criteria are evaluated with the proposed method. The weights of the criteria and the importance of technical, managerial focusing factors are determined with the BWM. The results assist the administrators in selecting the best priority launch site. The best worst method provides reliable and usable results that are also consistent with the other evaluation. The uncertainties associated with the input parameters have been analyzed with the Ben-Tal best and worst methods. In a launch site for Turkey's illustrative example, Sinop is selected as the best priority launch site in Turkey's provinces, and Somalia is found the best-proposed launch site location among four candidates. Appropriately established launch site supports accessing space successfully. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, service-providing insurgent groups have responded differently, with some initiating more attacks amid ongoing destabilisation while others have immediately veered towards precautionary measures such as initiating public awareness campaigns and setting up quarantine centres. What drives these divergent responses? Relying on publicly available and semi-private sources, this article examines how the Taliban in Afghanistan, Ha'ayt Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) in Syria, and Al-Shabaab in Somalia have operationalised their responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings reveal that the divergent responses are rooted in the framing of the pandemic discourse. The Taliban and HTS both interpreted it as a calamity that needs responding to and repurposed their activities accordingly by stepping up their attacks against combatants while concomitantly exploiting the humanitarian vacuum created by the pandemic by delivering health services. However, as the pandemic surged, the two groups gradually scaled down their combatant targeting and prioritised delivering health services to bolster their legitimacy and build popular support for their proto-states. By contrast, Al-Shabaab labelled the pandemic as a Western and Chinese 'problem', and made no visible changes to their operations in response to the crisis, only belatedly beginning to offer health services as the pandemic worsened. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Premature birth impacts millions of newborns annually. Sixty percent of the world's preterm births occur in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Somalia's premature birth rates and maternal risk factors are poorly studied; hence, this study aims to identify maternal risk factors related to premature births in Mogadishu, Somalia. Methods: This unmatched case-control study was conducted at four maternity hospitals in Mogadishu, Somalia. The cases were newborns with gestational ages of less than 37 weeks; controls were newborns with gestational ages of 37 to 42 weeks. All were live singletons. Cross-tabulation and binary logistic regression were used to analyze the data; a p-value of 0.05 was deemed statistically significant. Result: Of the total of 499 newborns, 70 were cases, and 429 were controls. Adequate prenatal care, maternal urine analysis, tetanus toxoid (TT) vaccination, hemoglobin (Hb) measurement, ultrasound monitoring, intake of iron + folic acid (IFA) supplement, blood pressure (BP) measurement during the current pregnancy, as well as partograph usage during labor all significantly decreased risk of having premature births. A prior history of preterm delivery and preeclampsia, obstetric complications, and female genital mutilation (FGM) significantly increased the risk of preterm births. Conclusion: The utilization of antenatal care services, use of a partograph, obstetric complications, and prior history of premature birth and preeclampsia had a substantial effect on preterm birth rates. This study identifies female genital mutilation (FGM) as a previously unidentified risk factor for preterm birth that needs additional investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mitigating environmental degradation is a global target for every nation amidst its negative consequences on health, economy, and society. However, little is known about factors associated with reducing environmental pollution in the least developed nations. More specifically, empirical studies on renewables-institutional quality-environmental degradation nexus in Somalia are completely limited in the existing literature. To fill this gap, we investigate the effect of renewables and institutional quality on environmental degradation in Somalia, using data spanning 1990 to 2017. The autoregressive distributed lag model (ARDL) and granger causality are applied to examine the relationships and causality between parameters of interest. The long-run results demonstrate that renewable energy and institutional quality enhance environmental quality. While growth in capital declines environmental degradation, population growth, and economic development hamper environmental quality. Besides, the granger causality indicates unidirectional causality from institutional quality to environmental degradation. However, no causality is observed from renewable energy to environmental degradation and vice versa. Our empirical assessment suggests good governance that improves institutional quality and energy policies, viz. enhancing the share of renewables in the energy mix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Thyroid disease is an independent predictor of heart failure in patients. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of thyroid dysfunction among patients with heart failure in Mogadishu, Somalia. Methods: From January 2019 to January 2021, a total of 250 patients diagnosed with heart failure admitted to the cardiology outpatient and emergency departments were evaluated retrospectively. The demographic characteristics, the cause of heart failure, and the kind of heart failure were recorded. Patients were categorized into subclinical hypothyroidism, hypothyroidism, low T3 syndrome, subclinical hyperthyroidism, and hyperthyroidism. Results: A total of 250 heart failure patients. The prevalence of thyroid dysfunction among heart failure patients was 35.6%. The mean age of the patients was 59.8± 14 years. Males outnumbered females by 159 (63.2%). The prevalence of thyroid dysfunction was 35.6%. Out of the 250 patients that were examined, most of the patients 30(33.3%) had subclinical hypothyroidism. 23 (25.6%) had overt hypothyroidism, 15 (16.7%) had overt hyperthyroidism, 20 (22.2%) had low T3 syndrome, and two cases had subclinical hyperthyroidism. Regarding the gender status of the thyroid dysfunction, 43(48.3%) were male, and 46(51.7%) were female. Regarding heart failure types among thyroid dysfunction patients, most patients were HFrEF (n=64, 71.9%), and 25(28.1%) were HFpEF. Patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) were more likely to have thyroid dysfunction than those with preserved ejection fraction (p = 0.012). Regarding comorbidities among heart failure patients with thyroid dysfunction, approximately half of the patients had hypertension (40.4%). Conclusion: Thyroid problems are one of the most prevalent endocrine abnormalities in our practice. Subclinical hypothyroidism was the most common type of thyroid dysfunction among this population. We suggest that thyroid function be evaluated with cardiac function in patients with heart failure and followed up and treated together with heart failure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the enormous impact of the livestock sector on Somalia's economy and its vulnerability to climate variations, this study investigates short and long-term changes in climatic effects on livestock production by using data spanning from 1985 to 2016. To this end, the ARDL bounds testing and causality techniques were employed to model the long-run and short-run relationships, and direction of causality among sampled variables. Overall, the empirical results confirmed the existence of a stable long-run cointegration between variables. Rainfall and temperature patterns were found to have a significant positive and negative impact on livestock production both in the long run and short run, respectively. The observed carbon dioxide emissions have no significant impact on livestock production in the long run but enhance livestock production in the short run. Interestingly, growth in rural population declines livestock production in the long run but not in the short run. Besides, a unidirectional causality is confirmed from temperature to rainfall and CO2 whereas livestock production has a bidirectional causal relationship with rainfall and temperature. While CO2 emissions granger cause livestock production, a unidirectional causation is observed from rural population to temperature and livestock production. This study suggests adaptation and mitigation policies that combat the negative consequences of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the challenges facing the health care system in Somalia as well as the low rate of contraception uptake in the country. Topics include findings of the 2020 Somali Health and Demographic Survey, factors attributed to an underdeveloped health-care infrastructure and a severe shortage of health-care personnel in the country, and the need of Somalia to prioritize sexual and reproductive health-care services.

During civil wars, some communities raise self-defense militias to protect themselves from insurgent predation, but these militias can end up mutating into predatory organizations. The extant literature has focused chiefly on the predatory propensity of state-created self-defense militias and has mostly overlooked why some community-created self-defense militias segue into predatory organizations while others eschew predation altogether. This study explains this phenomenon, drawing on in-depth interviews with active members of two community-created self-defense militias (Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a and Macawiisley) in Somalia. In doing so, two sequential mechanisms (sponsorship and mobility) that determine the propensity of predatory behavior are introduced. Self-defense militias that conduct offensive operations engage in predatory behavior, irrespective of whether they are sponsored locally or have external patrons. Externally sponsored self-defense militias that engage in offensive operations attract opportunistic recruits and become motivated by material benefits, while community-sponsored self-defense militias that conduct offensive operations instrumentalize their position to settle old scores against rival communities. By contrast, self-defense militias that restrict their operations to defensive activities typically recruit dedicated homegrown members, and are regulated by community-managed accountability mechanisms that prevent predatory and abusive behavior. This community control remains crucial for defensive self-defense militias, who must balance external patrons' strategic aims with their local objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Somalia has been without an effective government since the collapse of the military regime in 1991. Years of conflict, disasters, and insecurity have all contributed to very low scores for most health indicators due to poor governance, protracted conflict, underdevelopment, economic decline, poverty, social and gender inequality, and environmental degradation. The three-decade long protracted conflict has led to widespread psychosocial trauma, social deprivation and substance abuse with devastating consequences on mental health. A WHO study showed Somalia has one of the highest rates of mental illness in the world. The main aim of this study is to assist policy makers in setting priorities for the design and delivery of interventions to promote mental health and psychosocial wellbeing in Somalia. Methods: The study uses a systematic mapping technique (from January 1991 to May 2020) and data collected from public domain, to collect, collate, and present mental health data mainly from WHO's Global Health Observatory. Since there is no primary database for Somalia's public health research, the bibliographic databases used for mental health in this study included Medline, PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar. Data were extracted using techniques for web data mining for public health. Results: Systematic mapping of mental health-related issues in Somalia showed that policy-related determinants and mental health services dominated (74.4%), followed by the disaster-related determinants and women's health consequences (39.3%). The ratio of the number of beds for mental health in general hospitals (per 100,000 population) in Somalia in 2017 is 0.5 compared to the Eastern Mediterranean region (EMR) at 6.4 and globally at 24. One of the biggest casualties of the civil war was loss of essential human resources in healthcare as most either fled the country or were part of the victims of the war. Conclusions: The vast scale of the mental health problems in Somalia and the priority setting guidelines for interventions to address the issues outlined in this paper, prompt a dire need that the Somali government and its national/international partners should prioritize and emphasize the need to invest in the prevention and the treatment of mental illness across the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why has the Somali government failed to provide public order and essential services, while Al-Shabaab has had relatively more success in its governance objectives? To explain this variation in governance success, we offer a political economy explanation of wartime order-making based on the competing bargains that governing actors create to uphold their power. We identify two key political bargains in Somalia: (1) an elite deal, forged among members of the Somali Federal Government (SFG) and Federal Member States (FMS); and (2) a civilian deal, which Al-Shabaab directly establishes with the citizens under its control. Looking at these two deals, we examine how access to foreign support can affect a governing actor's taxation impetus, and subsequently its commitment to governance. Our results reveal that not only can foreign support undermine the normal taxation-protection relationship between citizen and state, but it can also inadvertently provide jihadists with an opportunity to establish alternative forms of order. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The increase of mental health issues globally has been well documented and now reflected in the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals as a matter of global health significance. At the same time, studies show the mental health situations in conflict and post-conflict settings much higher than the rest of the world, lack the financial, health services and human resource capacity to address the challenges. Methods: The study used a descriptive literature review and collected data from public domain, mostly mental health data from WHO's Global Health Observatory. Since there is no primary database for Somalia's public health research, the bibliographic databases used for mental health in this study included Medline, PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar. Results: The review of the mental health literature shows one of the biggest casualties of the civil war was loss of essential human resources in healthcare as most either fled the country or were part of the victims of the war. Conclusion: In an attempt to address the human resource gap, there are calls to task-shift so that available human resource can be utilized efficiently and effectively. This policy paper discusses the case of Somalia, the impact of decade-long civil conflict on mental health and health services, the significant gap in mental health service delivery and how to strategically and evidently task-shift in closing the mental health gap in service delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are limited data on the prevalence of anaemia and iron deficiency (ID) in Somalia. To address this data gap, Somalia's 2019 micronutrient survey assessed the prevalence of anaemia and ID in children (6–59 months) and non‐pregnant women of reproductive age (15–49 years). The survey also collected data on vitamin A deficiency, inflammation, malaria and other potential risk factors for anaemia and ID. Multivariable Poisson regressions models were used to identify the risk factors for anaemia and ID in children and women. Among children, the prevalence of anaemia and ID were 43.4% and 47.2%, respectively. Approximately 36% and 6% of anaemia were attributable to iron and vitamin A deficiencies, respectively, whereas household possession of soap was associated with approximately 11% fewer cases of anaemia. ID in children was associated with vitamin A deficiency and stunting, whereas inflammation was associated with iron sufficiency. Among women, 40.3% were anaemic, and 49.7% were iron deficient. In women, ID and number of births were significantly associated with anaemia in multivariate models, and approximately 42% of anaemia in women was attributable to ID. Increased parity was associated with ID, and incubation and early convalescent inflammation was associated with ID, whereas late convalescent inflammation was associated with iron sufficiency. ID is the main risk factor of anaemia in both women and children and contributed to a substantial portion of the anaemia cases. To tackle both anaemia and ID in Somalia, food assistance and micronutrient‐specific programmes (e.g. micronutrient powders and iron supplements) should be enhanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Little is known about COVID-19 vaccination intentions among refugee communities in the United States. The objective of this study was to measure COVID-19 vaccination intentions among a sample of refugees in the United States and the reasons for their vaccine acceptance or hesitancy. Methods: From December 2020 through January 2021, we emailed or text messaged anonymous online surveys to 12 bilingual leaders in the Afghan, Bhutanese, Somali, South Sudanese, and Burmese refugee communities in the United States. We asked community leaders to complete the survey and share the link with community members who met the inclusion criteria (arrived in the United States as refugees, were aged ≥18, and currently lived in the United States). We compared the characteristics of respondents who intended to receive the COVID-19 vaccine with those of respondents who did not intend to receive the vaccine or were unsure. We then conducted crude and adjusted logistic regression analysis to measure the association between employment as an essential worker and COVID-19 vaccine acceptance. Results: Of 435 respondents, 306 (70.3%) indicated that they planned to receive a COVID-19 vaccine. Being an essential worker (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 2.37; 95% CI, 1.44-3.90) and male sex (aOR = 1.87; 95% CI, 1.12-3.12) were significantly associated with higher odds of intending to receive a COVID-19 vaccine. Among respondents who intended to receive a COVID-19 vaccine, wanting to protect themselves (68.6%), family members (65.0%), and other people (54.3%) were the main reasons. Conclusion: Many refugees who responded to the survey, especially those who worked in essential industries, intended to receive a COVID-19 vaccine. Community organizations, health care providers, and public health agencies should work together to ensure that vaccine registration and vaccination sites are accessible to refugees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Fourteen-years after the last Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus (RVFV) outbreak, Somalia still suffers from preventable transboundary diseases. The tradition of unheated milk consumption and handling of aborted materials poses a public health risk for zoonotic diseases. Limited data are available on RVF and Brucella spp. in Somali people and their animals. Hence, this study has evaluated the occurrence of RVFV and Brucella spp. antibodies in cattle, goats and sheep sera from Afgoye and Jowhar districts of Somalia. Methods: Serum samples from 609 ruminants (201 cattle, 203 goats and 205 sheep), were serologically screened for RVF by a commercial cELISA, and Brucella species by modified Rose Bengal Plate Test (mRBPT) and a commercial iELISA. Results: Two out of 609 (0.3 %; 95 %CI: 0.04–1.2 %) ruminants were RVF seropositive, both were female cattle from both districts. Anti-Brucella spp. antibodies were detected in 64/609 (10.5 %; 95 %CI: 8.2–13.2 %) ruminants by mRBPT, which were 39/201 (19.4 %) cattle, 16/203 (7.9 %) goats and 9/205 (4.4 %) sheep. Cattle were 5.2 and 2.8 times more likely to be Brucella-seropositive than sheep (p = 0.000003) and goats (p = 0.001), respectively. When mRBPT-positive samples were tested by iELISA, 29/64 (45.3 %; 95 %CI: 32.8–58.3 %) ruminant sera were positive for Brucella spp. Only 23/39 (58.9 %) cattle sera and 6/16 (37.5 %) goat sera were positive to Brucella spp. by iELISA. Conclusions: The present study showed the serological evidence of RVF and brucellosis in ruminants from Afgoye and Jowhar districts of Somalia. Considering the negligence of the zoonotic diseases at the human-animal interface in Somali communities, a One Health approach is needed to protect public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - This Study Emphasizes How Local Investors Are Ready To Compete With Foreign Investors. In Recent Years, Since Somalia Is Recovering From A Bad Economy And Developing Infrastructure, Fdi Has Gotten A Lot Of Publicity. The Aim Of This Study Is To Find Out How Investors Think About Foreign Direct Investment. The Research Also Explores The Barriers And Opportunities Of Foreign Investments Towards Local Investment. Design, Methodology, And Approach: The Primary Data For This Study Was Collected Using A Quantitative Research Method And An Online Survey. Data Was Collected From 305 Respondents Who Were Personally Interested In Investment, Which May Be Small Or Large Businesses. The Effect Of Foreign Direct Investment On Local Investors Was Examined In Four Dimensions In The Study. The Likert Five-Point Agreement Scale Was Used On Both Of These Questions. Findings- Technological Change, Market Employment, Financial Benefits, And Market Competitiveness Are All Factors That The Researchers Consider When Evaluating Local Investors. As A Result, The Majority Of Investors Conclude That Foreign Investment Will Result In More Business Work Opportunities, According To The Report. Furthermore, The Outcome Suggests That Industry Rivalry Will Become More Aggressive And Powerful. Financial Benefits, On The Other Hand, Are Seen As One Of The Greatest Challenges That Local Developers Will Encounter Due To Their Small Scale. Originality/Value - While Studies On Fdi Have Been Conducted, The Majority Of These Focus On Macroeconomic Variables Including Inflation, Interest Rates, Gdp, Unemployment, And Infrastructure Growth, All Of Which Are Unpredictable And Have Long-Term Implications On Local Investors' Perceptions. Therefore, In The Best Knowledge Of Researchers, This Is One Of The Very Limited Studies Explore The Perception Of Investors Towards Foreign Direct Investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine uptake is low among East African adolescents in the US. Adolescents' preferences influence HPV vaccine decisions, yet few interventions exist that address East African adolescents' beliefs about HPV vaccines. We describe a multi-step process on how to create a theory-based comic book by integrating empirical findings, theory and focus group data from East African parents in the US.Methods: Our multi-methods process included conducting focus groups with Somali, Ethiopian, and Eritrean mothers (n = 30) to understand mothers and adolescents socio-cultural beliefs and information needs about the HPV vaccine, creating comic book messages integrating the focus group findings, and assessing the acceptability of the finalized comic book among Somali, Ethiopian, and Eritrean adolescents (n = 134).Results: We identified categories around socio-cultural beliefs (such ethnic representation and concerns about pork gelatin in vaccines), HPV vaccine information needs, and diffusion of information. We then mapped the categories to theoretical constructs and operationalized them into the comic book. Finally, we describe the overall acceptability of the comic book and specifics on comic book structure, appeal of characters, and message relevance.Conclusions: A rigorous multi-step process that integrates theory and focus group data can help create culturally appropriate health messages that can educate and appeal to the community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Politically, Somalia is more or less the same as it was in the late 1990s—rightly put, the Arta peace process—with 'political' groups competing for power and wealth but with a different approach. The issues on the 'Somali' agenda are many, the need to rethink governance immense and ongoing efforts to rebuild the nation, from security to the constitution to the reconciliation process are but national priorities. This article aims to provide a brief assessment of Somalia—30 years after. It will discuss some of the issues in the Somali agenda with emphasis on the story of the haan and provide a number of recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this research examination is to ascertain the effect of climate change, measured rainfall, temperature, and CO2, on crop production by using data spanning from 1985 to 2016 in Somalia. ARDL bounds testing approach and Granger causality were employed to model the long-run and short-run cointegrations and the causality directions respectively of the scrutinized variables. The empirical results of the study found a long cointegration between the variables. It revealed that rainfall improves crop production in the long-run but hampers in the short-run, whereas temperature has adverse effect on crop production both in the long and short runs. But carbon dioxide emissions do not have any significant effect on crop production. Among other determinants, agriculture labour and land under cereal cultivation have a negative and positive impact on crop productivity in the long-run, respectively. In contrast, unidirectional causality is observed from agriculture and land under cereal cultivation to temperature, while another unidirectional causality is established from carbon dioxide emission to land under cereal cultivation. Hence, the policymakers should formulate coherent adaptation measures and mitigation policies to tackle the already felt effect of the changing climate on the agriculture sector to rebuild resilient and sustainable agriculture production in Somalia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 1991, Somalia has been trapped in a violent civil war that has had devastating consequences for not just the country but also its neighbors. Women and girls are among the worst affected by the conflict as they continue to suffer from abuses at the hands of belligerent factions. The article argues that centuries of entrenched patriarchy has contributed to the shaping of wartime gender relations and dynamics. Conflict-related sexual and other forms of violence have been designed to demoralize and inflict pain on women and girls and their clans and communities. While the paper draws on the challenges that women and girls contend with in Somalia, it also argues that the patriarchal approach to addressing the conflict has also limited the individual and collective agency of women and their potential contributions to the search for peace, security, and stability in Somalia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to measure the effect of land degradation and the environmental changes on agricultural productivity in Somalia, as well as the other factors that affect crop production in Somalia. Design/methodology/approach: Cobb-Douglas production function assumes crop production as a dependent variable and land degradation, labor, capital, fertilizer and climate change as the explanatory variables. In this study time-series data (1962–2017) collected from the Food and Agriculture Organization and World Development Indicators were used. The unit root of the data was examined using Ng-Perron and the Lee-Strazicich methods to explore the unit root property of the breaks. Structural breaks are observed using the Chow test, and the long-run relationship between the variables is examined using Gregory and Hanssen's approach. Findings: This study found that land degradation and climate change have a negative relationship with agriculture production in Somalia. Land degradation leads to the decline in agricultural production as the loss of one hectare of land due the depletion causes agriculture production of Somalia to fall by about five percent. Climate changes and warming of the environment lead to the reduction of agriculture production. One degree Celsius rise in the temperature leads to a three percent decline in agricultural production. Capital contributes immensely to agricultural production as one unit of additional capital raises production by seven percent. The contribution of labor to agricultural production is limited because of land contraction Practical implications: Land degradation is a significant contributor to the decline of agricultural production. As land degradation continues to worsen, rural poverty increases, which in turn causes the rural migration and the social conflict. The government should develop land improvement programs such as increasing market orientation of the farmers, encourage private sector engagement in agribusiness and establish a regulatory framework of the land uses. Originality/value: This study examines the structure of the time-series and specifies the break periods to determine when and where significant and sudden changes occurred within land degradation and agricultural production. The study employs advanced econometric methods, namely, Ng-Perron method and the Lee-Strazicich method to test the unit root property of the breaks. It also examines the long-run relationship between the variables using Gregory and Hanssen's approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been relatively rapid growth in Somalia's real estate sector recently, resulting in property market booms in major cities of the country. Despite this sector's importance, very little scientific research has been conducted. Thus, this study aims to model the rental value of residential apartments in Mogadishu, Somalia. A hybrid modeling approach is utilized, in which a hedonic regression model was used in the first phase and an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) in the second. After analysis, the study established that an apartment's age, size, value, view, number of toilets, air quality, proximity to CBD, proximity to a university and probability of explosion are key factors determining apartment rental rates in Mogadishu, while floor level, parking space, and school proximity do not have a significant impact on apartment rental rates. Because of speculation, there is a higher likelihood of overvaluation than undervaluation in the housing market, which has profound policy and practical implications. Rather than being driven by real demand, Mogadishu's real estate market is driven by speculation, as overvaluation signals are more evident than undervaluation signals. As one of the world's poorest nations, where 70% of the population lives below the international poverty line, and about 80% of jobs are in the informal sector, extreme speculative activities adversely affect Somalia's economic quality and the living conditions of its citizens. Somali citizens need government policies that facilitate the accessibility, affordability, and adequate availability of decent housing. The study recommends protecting Somalia's real estate sector to attract more investors and boost the country's post-conflict development initiatives. A vital contribution of the study is that it is the first to examine the rental value of residential apartments in Mogadishu systematically. This study contributes significantly to housing economics and real estate development literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 2015, Al-Shabaab and the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) have been locked in a violent, protracted stalemate. There is little momentum to pursue a political settlement, with Al-Shabaab rejecting any overtures of dialogue. Drawing on theoretical perspectives from peace and conflict literature and key interviews with clan elders and Al-Shabaab defectors, this article explores two interconnected themes. First, Al-Shabaab's dynamic attitudes towards dialogue since the group's establishment; and second, how clan elders play diverse peace-seeking roles, negotiating between Al-Shabaab and FGS at the microlevel. The article highlights two important findings. First, Al-Shabaab was initially inclined toward dialogue but, following the death and defection of senior members, increasingly adopted an anti-negotiation stance. Second, whilst Al-Shabaab is obstinately refusing any dialogue on the macrolevel, at the microlevel, the group indirectly negotiates with the FGS and other actors using clan elders as interlocutors and facilitators. Finally, the article explores the idea that, instead of relying on foreign third-party mediators to resolve Somalia's protracted stalemate at the macrolevel, clan elders, as credible insider-partial mediators possessing locally sourced legitimacy and perceived integrity, have the capacity to help overcome the stalemate between Al-Shabaab and the FGS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To determine the type, frequency and distribution of all cancers in Somalia from 2017 to 2020. Patients and Methods: This retrospective and descriptive study included the review of a total of 5238 pathology reports obtained from the medical records of the Somalia Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdogan Education and Research Hospital. Patient characteristics, lesion localization, and histopathology were recorded. Patients with an unconfirmed cancer diagnosis, borderline tumors, intraepithelial neoplasms and metastatic cancers were excluded from the study. The cases were classified according to gender, age, and organ involvement. Results: Of the 1306 patients included in the study, 50.9% (n=666) were female and 49.1% (n=640) were male, and the mean age was 51.1± 19.4 years. Of the cases, 5.1% (n=67) were pediatric (0– 17 years) and 35.8% (n=468) were in the 18– 50 years range. The most common cancer was esophageal cancer (EC) for the overall data (n=284; 21.7%) and in both genders. EC peaked in the fifth decade, and the most common histological type was squamous cell carcinoma (n=256; 91.1%). Liver cancer was the second most common cancer overall (n=99; 7.6%) and in men (n=67; 10.5%). Cervical cancer was the second most common cancer among women (n=88; 13.3%) and ranked fourth in terms of overall incidence (n=88; 6.7%). Breast cancer was the third most common overall (n=95; 7.3%) and in women (n= 87; 13.1%). Conclusion: This study shows that in Somalia, EC is the most common cancer in both genders. These high rates in Somalia suggest that environmental factors and dietary habits may have an effect. To reduce the incidence of EC and prevent its development, the population of Somalia should be educated and effective planning should be undertaken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The question of the degree to which participation by civil society contributes to environmental decisions in post-conflict societies has received little attention. This study sheds light on the extent to which degrees of participation contribute to environmental decision-making in the Puntland State of Somalia using questionnaire surveys. We found that active participation has the highest contribution to environmental decisions. Our findings also indicated that the most pressing forms of environmental degradation in Puntland, as perceived by the respondents, are land degradation, drought related to the scarcity of rainfall, and deforestation. This study recommends "environmental cooperation" built into the peace-building process as a clear-cut concept to tackle both environmental degradation and conflicts. At the core of this concept is active participation and collaboration between civil society and the government as a means of mitigating environmental degradation in post-conflict Somalia. This will result in favorable environmental conditions and sustainable peace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study seeks to investigate the needs of family caregivers of people living with Mental illness in Somalia. Using an exploratory research design technique, a qualitative approach was employed for a one-on-one interview module to collect data from a total of 51 respondents identified as family caregivers of mentally ill persons undergoing rehabilitation in five (5) selected mental health facilities sampled for the study. In analyzing and interpreting qualitative data, a thematic content analysis was done which revealed that, in addition to medical care, family caregivers need not only social support in a form of affection to assist them in their various engagements, but also, adequate relaxation and leisure to regain lost energies and save them from stress and its harmful ramifications on their health. They also need decent accommodation to maintain their mentally ill relatives. The results further revealed that, caregivers needed financial support as well as emotional support from friends and society in order to psyche them up for their task. To understand the needs of patients' treatment history and condition, caregivers need information. It is, therefore of necessity to social workers and other stakeholders that the needs of caregivers are adequately and sufficiently addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Camel trypanosomiasis or surra is of great concern in Somalia, since the country possesses the largest one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) population in the world. Civil war in Somalia has resulted in the destruction of educational, research, economic and social structures, making the country scores very low for most humanitarian indicators. Previous studies on detection of Trypanosoma species in Somali camels have only been performed during the 1990s using standard trypanosome detection methods (STDM). Considering the lack of state-of-the-art knowledge on camel trypanosomiasis in Somalia, the present study aimed to assess the prevalence of Trypanosoma spp. in three districts of Somalia. Methods: A total of 182 blood samples from C. dromedarius from nomadic and dairy farms were evaluated using STDM, serological (CATT/T. evansi) and molecular (ITS1-PCR) methods. Results: All samples were negative for Trypanosoma spp. by STDM. A total of 125/182 (68.7%, 95% CI: 61.4–75.3%) camels were seropositive for T. evansi by CATT/T. evansi. Camels reared in nomadic system were more likely to be seropositive for T. evansi than those under dairy production system (OR: 5.6, 95% CI: 2.1–15.2, P = 0.0001). Five out of 182 (2.7%, 95% CI: 0.9–6.3%) camels tested positive for Trypanosoma sp. by ITS1-PCR. Sequencing of the ITS1 region of the Trypanosoma species detected herein revealed that camels were infected with T. evansi and T. simiae. Conclusions: Trypanosoma evansi is highly prevalent in camels from the Banadir region of Somalia, particularly in nomadic herds. To our knowledge, this is the first study to confirm infections with T. evansi and T. simiae in Somali camels through DNA sequencing. Our data highlight the need for implementation of adequate control measures aiming to reduce the impact on camel production in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intermediation is the main objective of any financial industry. While financing services are provided by formal financial institutions in the advanced world, financing services are provided differently in emerging economies. Hence, various alternative modes of financing are used in these countries. The motivation behind this study is to investigate the informal mode of financing employed for construction financing in Somalia. While utilizing time-value of money, this study found that financier-tenants do not consider time in their decision-making. Finally, this study argues that this informal mode of financing is more advantageous to landlords. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Aloe (Asphodelaceae) is described from Somaliland. It differs from other species in forming large clumps and in having sap that is initially yellow but quickly turns bright red and then dark red or reddish-brown, paniculate red-flowered inflorescences and uniformly coloured leaves with red teeth. Its recognition raises the number of species known from the combined area of Somaliland and Somalia s.s. from 31 to 36. A map portraying species density of Aloe by country, as that genus is now interpreted, shows that Aloe has its highest density on islands in the Indian Ocean but that, within Africa, the greatest density is in countries along the eastern highlands. The data also reinforce the importance of field botanists in determining a country's known plant diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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