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Preserving water quality, which has at least four of the ten characteristics of a "wicked problem", is fundamental for economic development, ecosystems function, and human wellbeing. Consequently, identifying suitable public policies or technological solutions that can maintain or restore affected ecosystems, especially in river catchments, is a huge challenge. Understanding diverse stakeholder perspectives on important aquatic ecosystem services is critical to improving water governance and quality. This study uses the Q-methodology to identify and analyze perspectives about aquatic ecosystem services in the Olifants River catchment, one of the most important and polluted in South Africa, across six diverse stakeholder groups competing for its limited water resources. The Q methodology is a semi-qualitative methodology that can systematically recover detailed views of the subjective perceptions diverse stakeholder groups hold on a given topic. Our results suggest existence of three significant and conflicting perspectives. The "conservationists" prioritize regulation and supporting services, the "water users" give highest priority to water for domestic and other private uses, while the "planners" rank mastering the environment for societal benefits highest. Equally importantly, our results suggest the possibility of solutions that can deliver services ranked highly by some stakeholders without compromising the welfare of others who hold neutral perspectives towards them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water is an important resource, and it is a worldwide struggle to provide water of good quality to the whole population. Despite good governing laws and guidelines set in place to help protect the water resources and ensure it is of good quality for various consumers, the water quality in South Africa is worsening due to lack of management. The deteriorating infrastructure is becoming progressively worse, due to corruption and insufficient funds. The ever-increasing number of toxicants, as well as the identification of emerging chemicals of concern, are also challenges South Africa is facing. Chemical analysis cannot determine the total biological effect of a mixture of chemical compounds, but this shortcoming can be addressed by adding effect-based methods (EBMs) to water quality monitoring programmes. In this paper, the current status of water quality monitoring in South Africa is discussed, as well as the capacity of the country to add EBMs to its water quality monitoring programmes to protect and improve human and animal life. Created in Biorender.com [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Maputaland coastal plain of KwaZulu-Natal is one of the popular tourist areas in South Africa. Groundwater is the major source for drinking and irrigation purposes which is abstracted from unconsolidated aquifers having higher infiltration rate possibly increases the risk of aquifer contamination. Comprehensive study was conducted in 53 groundwater monitoring wells to identify the characteristic of water quality and processes controlling groundwater chemistry using multiple methods. Rock-water interaction and Na/Ca ion exchange are the dominant processes. Water quality index (WQI) varies from 18.9 to 157.1 with an average value of 45.55. Majority of the samples are classified as good, 22% as poor, 2% as very poor and 7% under unsuitable category, which are spatially distributed towards southern and western part of the study area. Health risk assessment of trace elements via ingestion and dermal absorption pathways was carried out. Hazard quotient through dermal absorption (HQdermal) and hazard index (HI) for Co and Mn are above 1 in adults, children and infants. HQdermal and HI for Cd are greater than 1 in children and infants. HQdermal and HI for As and Pb are greater than 1 in infants. This implies that these metals pose serious to adverse health risk on people while infants are more vulnerable than children and adults. This study provides the baseline data on hydro geochemistry that can be utilised for further studies in future. This study recommends that groundwater in this region should be treated before utilisation and suggest that further extended studies should be conducted to explore more on groundwater resources in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the level of phenols and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Nandoni dam situated in the Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. About 55 villages are supplied with water sourced from the dam which is prone to contamination by different pollutants other than phenols and PAHs, due to its exposure to agricultural, human and animal activities around it. A quantitative determination of these pollutants was conducted using a gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometer (GC-TOF MS) after sample preparation that involved solid phase extraction (SPE). Water samples were collected on a seasonal basis in spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Several phenolic compounds (phenol, 2-chlorophenol, 2,6-dichlorophenol, 2,4,5-trichlorophenol, 2,4-dimethylphenol, 4-nitrophenol and p-cresol) were detected in the dam at concentration levels not suitable for drinking purposes. The recorded concentrations were generally higher than the SANS 241, US EPA and WHO acceptable limits in drinking water with up to 1.11 mg/L recorded for 2,4,5-trichlorophenol. The concentrations of PAHs (naphthalene, acenaphthene, pyrene, benz(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene) fell within the threshold limits and were typically less than 0.1 μg/L. The water treatment plants sourcing water from the Nandoni dam use conventional treatment processes that focus more on removing contaminants such as microorganisms and heavy metals without considering the danger of long-term effects of organic contaminants, whose harmful health effects are observed after long periods of exposure. Therefore, this dam requires coordinated management of the water resources in order to maximize the economic and social welfare equitably without affecting human life and the ecosystem. • Quantitative analysis of the phenols and PAHs in the Nandoni dam, South Africa. • Concentrations of phenols and PAHs variation caused by seasonal changes. • Activities around the dam are the possible sources of these organic compounds into Nandoni dam. • An integrated water resource management of the dam is imperative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The South African constitution ratifies water as a human right. Yet millions of citizens remain disconnected from the national water infrastructure. Drawing on data collected in 2013-2014 from women in northern South Africa, this study explores "water citizenship"-individual civic engagement related to improving water service provision. Literature indicates that water insecurity is associated with emotional distress and that water-related emotional distress influences citizen engagement. I extend these lines of research by assessing the connection that water insecurity and emotional distress may collectively have with civic engagement to improve access to water infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the rise in health and safety risks due to operations of Roundhill Landfill Site near Berlin in the Eastern Cape within the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality in South Africa. It mentions the appointment of environmental technology solutions provider Envitech Solutions (Pty) Ltd. by Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality to maintain its strategy and an implementation plan for tackling the problem. It also informs about the scope of work like monitoring water quality.

The Mvoti Estuary located on the eastern seaboard of South Africa is known for its poor water quality. In the present study, concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO), ammonia, nitrates, chloride, sulphates, sodium and calcium were assessed together with conductivity and pH, compared to legislated guidelines and to previous studies of 1964 and 2000. The results indicate that with the exception of calcium, the Mvoti system has been experiencing long-term deterioration. Presently, ammonium ions, nitrate and chloride exceed the acceptable guideline target limits, and DO levels are extremely low. The biotic integrity of the system is therefore seriously compromised with the threat of detrimental effects to all users if mitigation measures aimed at improving water quality are not implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The call for a spatial fit between institutional arrangements and the resource they manage is reflected in such water management paradigms as river basin management and in a number of international agreements (e.g., the European Union Water Framework Directive). Consequently, a number of countries are currently introducing river basin management, which, besides management along hydrological boundaries, has recently come to include such aspects of governance as stakeholder participation and policy integration. Beginning with a discussion of the goals and limitations of river basin management, this paper describes how the concept has been implemented in South Africa--a country that has been lauded for its state-of-the-art water legislation, but whose water administration is currently struggling to implement it. The example begins by showing the limitations of focusing on the dimension of spatial fit: a perfect spatial fit in basin management is almost impossible owing to the nature of the resource and to social and economic requirements. There are trade-offs between the identification of hydrological boundaries (which sometimes proves difficult) and "boundaries" of social organization, such as a feasible size for effective management, meaningful stakeholder participation, and financial viability. Furthermore, the improved spatial fit of the institutional arrangement and water resource boundaries causes problems of interplay by increasing the need for coordination and cooperation among water management organizations at different levels and on different scales. The example then considers the relevance of other dimensions of water management. It shows that, besides the focus on spatial fit, there is a need to recognize major defining features or boundaries to the problem other than hydrological boundaries, such as those imposed by water service infrastructure (functional fit) and impacts of climate change (dynamic fit), and a need to acknowledge the political and economic dimensions of water management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In South Africa, the management and monitoring of drinking water quality is governed by policies and regulations based on international standards. Water Service Authorities, which are either municipalities or district municipalities, are required to submit information regarding water quality and the management thereof regularly to the national Blue Drop System (BDS). Since 2009, a trend has emerged in which urban municipalities have been shown to consistently improve their water quality management whilst some of the rural and under-resourced municipalities are falling behind. A major concern has been that rural municipalities are failing to report the required information and are not complying with some of the regulator's requirements that speak to the overall management of water quality monitoring rather than the actual water quality itself. This paper reflects on a case study undertaken in four rural municipalities in South Africa where a cellphone-based information system was implemented to collect information relevant to the municipality. The study was conducted by the Information for Community Oriented Municipal Services (iCOMMS) research team based at the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Cape Town. The hypothesis for the research was that improved information flow within rural municipalities - from water supplies in outlying areas to the municipal government office - can improve the efficiency of existing monitoring, if the design, development and implementation of such a system are based on collecting appropriate and locally relevant information. Water service authorities at the four field sites managed the process of monitoring in very different ways due to limited resources as well as structural challenges within each government department. The variety of stakeholders involved in water quality monitoring programmes, and the alternative methods and processes used, challenges the current understanding of information system design as well as the notion of developing a single national information system. The decentralisation of national water quality monitoring to municipal level was assessed in this research, which concluded that the BDS was of limited usefulness to water quality monitoring in the rural municipalities partaking in this research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to identify bacterial community structures in the Vaal River using PCR-DGGE (polymerase chain reaction denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) and high-throughput sequencing. The impact of physico-chemical characteristics on bacterial structures was investigated through multivariate analysis. Samples were collected from 4 sampling stations along the Upper Vaal River during winter (June 2009) and summer (December 2010). Physico-chemical analysis was conducted on-site. Additional physico-chemical data were obtained from statutory bodies. DNA was directly isolated from water samples and PCR amplified using universal bacterial primer pairs. PCR products were subjected to DGGE fingerprinting and high-throughput sequencing, followed by Shannon-Weaver diversity calculations, cluster analysis and multivariate analysis. Physico-chemical parameters did not exceed the prescribed South African water quality standards for domestic use, aquatic ecosystems, livestock watering and irrigation. DGGE banding patterns revealed similar bacterial community structures for 3 of the 4 sampling stations. PCA and RDA indicated that pH, water temperature and inorganic nutrient concentrations could be used to explain changes in bacterial community structures. High-throughput sequencing data showed that bacterial assemblages were dominated by common freshwater groups: Cyanobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. Other freshwater phyla such as Deltaproteobacteria, Epsilonbacteria, Acidobacteria, Verrucomicrobia, Firmicutes, Fusobacteria, Flavobacteria and Fibrobacteres were found in low proportions. This study provides an overview of the dominant bacterial groups in the Upper Vaal River and the impact of environmental changes on bacterial diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban water management - and the impacts that rapid population growth, industrialisation and climate change are having on it - is gaining increasing attention worldwide. In South Africa (SA), cities are under pressure to respond to not only the challenges of water availability and quality, but also to economic transformation and social division. New solutions for improving the sustainability of cities need to be found, including the development of tools to guide decision-makers. Several benchmarking initiatives have been implemented in the SA water sector - mostly in terms of performance measurement of specific water services for regulatory purposes - but none provide an integrated analysis to enable a deeper understanding of sustainability. The research described in this paper was thus focused on using a systems approach to create an understanding of, and measure the potential for, sustainability in a South African urban water context. This has been achieved through the development and evaluation of a composite index, the Sustainability Index for Integrated Urban Water Management (SIUWM). The first step involved compiling a vision of sustainability for the SA water sector, and expanding it into a sustainability framework to help identify suitable indicators for the assessment process, as well as those which link with existing measurement initiatives. Key performance indicator results from the Department of Water Affairs' Regulatory Performance Management System (RPMS) and the Blue Drop / Green Drop schemes were used as partial input to the SIUWM, and scores were computed for the nine member cities of the South African Cities Network (SACN). The SIUWM links the results from the regulatory systems with a broader sustainability assessment process to provide a more detailed analysis which can be used to establish goals and inform strategic processes to leverage support for improved water services. In this way, the connections that link the different aspects of urban water management can be used to generate a greater awareness of the underlying issues by key decision makers and thus guide appropriate action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to remove natural organic matter (NOM) from water in a water treatment train, the composition of the NOM in the source water must be taken into account, especially as it may not necessarily be uniform since the composition is dependent on the local environment. The main thrust of this study was to ascertain whether a cocktail of characterisation protocols could help to determine the nature, composition and character of NOM in South African waters. The characterisation of South African water sources was done by sampling 8 different water treatment plants located within the 5 major source water types in South Africa. The NOM composition of all of the samples was first studied by applying conventional techniques (UV, DOC, SUVA and bulk water parameters). NOM characterisation was then further conducted using advanced techniques (BDOC, PRAM and FEEM), which were aimed at developing rapid assessment protocols. The FEEM and UV results revealed that the samples consisted mainly of humic substances with a high UV-254 absorbance, while some samples had marine humic substances and non-humic substances. The sample's DOC results were within the range of 3.5 to 22.6 mg·l-1 C, which was indicative of the extent of variation of NOM quantities in the regions where samples were obtained. The BDOC fraction of the NOM ranged between 12 and 66%, depending on the geographical location of the sampling site. A modified PRAM was utilised to characterise the changes in NOM polarity in the water treatment process. PRAM results also indicated that the NOM samples were mostly hydrophobic. The composition and character of the NOM was found to vary from one water treatment plant to another. Combining conventional and advanced techniques could be a powerful tool for NOM characterisation and for extracting detailed information on NOM character, which should inform its treatability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wastewater consists of a complex mixture of substances. During wastewater treatment these harmful substances can be eliminated or degraded. However, persistent compounds released with the treated sewage effluents enter the environment and pose a risk to animal and human life. To determine the potential risks involved, screening tests are needed to monitor wastewater for potential toxic contaminants. The aim of this study was to validate and use screening tests to determine the toxicity of raw wastewater and treated sewage effluents from 3 sewage treatment plants in the Western Cape, South Africa. Raw wastewater and treated sewage effluents were screened for cytotoxicity using lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release from cells as biomarker, for neurotoxicity using acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition and for genotoxicity using the Save Our Soul (SOS) test. Results showed no cytotoxicity for both raw wastewater and treated sewage effluents from all sewage treatment plants. Raw wastewater from all sewage treatment plants contained AChE inhibitors and sewage treatment processes were not effective at eliminating these AChE inhibitors. Raw wastewater from all sewage treatment plants tested positive for genotoxicity. Treated sewage effluents from all three sewage treatment plants displayed no genotoxicity indicating effective removal of genotoxins by all three sewage treatment plants investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the broad concept of mental models is gaining currency as a way to explore the link between how people think and interact with their world, this concept is limited by a theoretical and practical understanding of how it can be applied in the study of human-environment relationships. Tools and processes are needed to be able to elicit and analyze mental models. Because mental models are not directly observable, it is also important to understand how the application of any tools and processes affects what is measured. Equally important are the needs to be clear on the intent of the elicitation and to design the methods and choose the settings accordingly. Through this special edition, we explore how mental models are elicited using two approaches applied in two case-study regions. We analyze two approaches used in the Crocodile River catchment of South Africa: a graphically based approach, i.e., actors, resources, dynamics, and interactions (ARDI); and an interview- or text-based approach, i.e., consensus analysis (CA). A further experiment in the Rhone Delta (Camargue), France, enabled us to test a crossover between these two methods using ARDI methodology to collect data and CA to analyse it. Here, we compare and explore the limitations and challenges in applying these two methods in context and conclude that they have much to offer when used singly or in combination. We first develop a conceptual framework as a synthesis of key social and cognitive psychology literature. We then use this framework to guide the enquiry into the key lessons emerging from the comparative application of these approaches to eliciting mental models in the two case regions. We identify key gaps in our knowledge and suggest important research questions that remain to be addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The performance of small water treatment plants (SWTPs) was evaluated using Mutshedzi WTP as a case study. The majority of SWTPs in South Africa (SA) that supply water to rural villages face problems of cost recovery, water wastages, limited size and semi-skilled labour. The raw and final water quality analyses and their compliance were used to assess the performance of the Mutshedzi WTP. Electrical conductivity (EC), pН and turbidity were measured in the field using a portable multimeter and a turbidity meter respectively. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry and Ion Chromatography were used to analyse metals and non-metals respectively. The results were compared with the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) guidelines for domestic use. The turbidity levels partially exceeded the recommended guidelines for domestic water use of 1NTU. The concentrations of chemical parameters in final water were within the DWA guidelines for domestic water use except for fluoride, which exceeded the maximum allowable guideline of 1.5mg/L in August 2009. Mutshedzi WTP had computed compliance for raw and final water analyses ranging from 79% to 93% and 86% to 93% throughout the sampling period, respectively. The results from earlier studies showed that the microbiological quality of final water in Mutshedzi WTP complied with the recommended guidelines, eliminating the slight chance of adverse aesthetic effects and infectious disease transmission associated with the turbidity values between 1 and 5NTU. The study concluded that Mutshedzi WTP, though moving towards compliance, is still not producing adequate quality of water. Other studies also indicated that the quantity of water produced from Mutshedzi WTP was inadequate. The findings of the study indicate that lack of monitoring of quantity of water supplied to each village, dosage of treatment chemicals, the treatment capacity of the WTP and monitoring the quality of water treated are some of the factors that limit the performance of Mutshedzi WTP. These have been confirmed in literature to be widespread in similar WTPs in SA. It is recommended that water meters be provided and the community be advised to subsidise the cost of water supply. The study recommended that the treatments of turbidity and fluoride should form critical functions of the plant to ensure that final water for domestic use is always safe from any harmful substances or disease causing pathogens. The study concluded that the WTP only needs minor improvement to boost its efficiency with regard to the treatment of raw water. This will also ensure that the plant achieves 100% compliance for final water. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A study has been done in Luvuvhu Catchment to develop a framework for effective community participation in water quality monitoring and management. Community participation and involvement in development has since the 1970s gathered momentum among the non-governmental organisations (NGOs) fraternity but has never gained clear status with Governments world over. In South Africa the policy and legal frameworks for community consultation, involvement and participation are clearly spelt out on paper starting with the country’s constitution. The division of the country into Water Management Areas (WMA) and the formation of Catchment Management Agencies (CMA), Water User Associations (WUAs) for example, was meant to increase participation of stakeholders including communities in the management of water resources. These efforts have not translated into effective participation by local communities in the management of water resources because there is no link between the national water quality management frameworks and community based development structures. An extensive review of development frameworks including community based structures has been undertaken. The most critical frameworks identified were the national water quality management framework (Directorate of Water Quality Monitoring and Catchment Management Agencies), community based structures and local government structures and systems (municipalities, provincial and national structures). There was no flow of information between the national water quality framework and community based development structures and therefore linkages were created between the lower tiers of the catchment management system (sub catchment fora and WUAs) to allow for information from the Directorate of Quality Monitoring to reach communities and vice versa. The lower tiers of the catchment management system should serve as specialised committees under the community development structures. The municipalities who control and fund development activities at community level should be linked to the catchment management system so that information can flow between the lower tiers of the catchment management system and communities on one hand and the municipalities on the other. The water quality monitoring information generated at community level should flow through community development structures, sub catchment fora, the Catchment Forum (where municipalities are members), the CMA and into the Directorate of Water Quality Monitoring. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Rising eutrophication in South African reservoirs is of major concern, leading to the consideration of top-down biomanipulation as a management option - reducing zooplankton-eating fish to sustain zooplankton grazing pressure and thus restrict autotrophic plankton that proliferate with nutrient increases. The biomass ratio of zooplankton to phytoplankton (ZB/PB) is used as an index of the likely value of biomanipulation to achieve this outcome, but values have not been explored for South African systems. Using chlorophyll (Chl) as a surrogate for PB, available ZB/Chl data are assembled for the first time for ten reservoirs of three types (minerally-turbid systems, oligo/mesotrophic clear water systems, and eutrophic/hypertrophic systems), and the results are discussed in relation to a generalised conceptual model proposed. With the exception of one minerally-turbid system, ZB/Chl values decline quasi-exponentially with rising chlorophyll within individual reservoirs. Conversely, between individual systems, median (or mean) values of ZB/Chl conversely increase rather than decline with rising trophic status - broadly contradicting observations reported elsewhere. Underlying causal reasons for the observed pattern and its implications for biomanipulation are considered. This assessment evaluates: the negative impacts of general declines in food quality that stem from rising eutrophication on zooplankton feeding ability and resulting seasonal changes in ZB and community structure; prospects of food sources other than living autochthonous autotrophs in sustaining ZB between systems; and inferences about fish predation pressure on zooplankton, derived from empirical data regarding the large body sizes of species and individuals of Daphnia that occur in the reservoirs. Observed increases in median ZB/Chl ratios with rising nutrient status are consistent with the inference that obligate visual zooplanktivorous fishes are scarce or absent, particularly in eutrophic reservoirs, suggesting that biomanipulative management is unlikely to assist in controlling the consequences of nutrient enrichment in local reservoirs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was based on the outcome of the soil geochemical survey which was conducted by the Council for Geoscience around Ebenezer Dam during 1995-1996, the results of which indicated high concentrations of lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) and arsenic (As). The current study therefore focused on the origin and distribution patterns of Pb, Zn, Cu, As and Cr within the environs of Ebenezer Dam and their potential impacts on the environment and human health. The work involved soil, sediment, rock and water sampling and analysis. Atomic absorption and x-ray fluorescence spectrometry were used to determine the metal concentrations. The occurrence of anomalous concentrations of these metals in the study area was established. The anomalies registered maximum concentrations of (mg/g): 57 for Pb, 157 for Zn, 313 for Cu, 73 for As and 888 for Cr. The concentrations of these metals in sediments along the streams were high near the anomalies, but decreased downstream. Concentrations of heavy metals in water around the Ebenezer Dam were found to be less than 0.01 mg/g , except for As which was less than 1.0 mg/g. Thus Pb, Zn, Cu and Cr values were below the target water quality ranges for domestic, irrigation, livestock watering and aquatic ecosystem use. The study confirmed that the distribution of heavy metals in this area is localised within and around the source rocks that are felsic in nature, namely; granites and pegmatites that formed domes in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim is to develop a conceptual model for aligning water resource quality and drinking water quality management. The model is based on the premise that good water quality is in everyone's best interests. Current management approaches attach responsibility for good water quality at a high level. The integrated water quality management approach 'breaks down' the management of water quality into smaller management units and establishes a horizontal and vertical reporting framework through the application of a generic business process. The business process requires the identification of critical risk factors and critical control points in each management unit. The results of the project were the development of the water use cycle, as a context for the model, and the development of a basic integrated water quality management. A case study is currently underway in the Breede River catchment of the Western Cape Province of South Africa in order to refine the proposed model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the end of the Nile crocodile as the keystone species for aquatic ecosystem conservation in Olifants River in South Africa. It notes that the water quality of almost all river systems in the country has worsened progressively due to increasing urbanization and industrialization. This has resulted in a progressive reduction of numbers and abundance of several sensitive species of insects, amphibians, as well as fish and aquatic mammals, such as the Nile crocodiles.

The historical patterns of access to water and other areas of public service delivery in South Africa have been markedly skewed. Despite the reversal of the regime and the fact that South Africa is a middle-income country, there are a significant number of people who are water- poor and poor in governance and institutional capacity to manage water. The recurring themes in integrated water resource management, reticulation pipes, weirs and pumps, stream flow regulations, and ecological requirements are dominant in water sector discourse and are alienating for those who do not master the language. There are constraints determined by racial, economic, or social structures that retain and reproduce dominant power relations. The paper considers the relationship between knowledge, agency, and shame and posits that unequal relations of power and knowledge restrict agency, jeopardize the building of trust, and may perpetuate feelings of shame. The role of the state in opening up water policy networks and redressing issues of knowledge, power, and agency is critical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change poses major threats to South Africa. The country depends heavily on surface water and its water resources are already under stress. Against this background one possible adaptation measure is a holistic approach and the management of water according to the basin principle. This article examines current water sector reforms and especially the transformation from administrative to hydrological boundaries. It concludes that this transformation might help to make the South African water governance system more adaptive to climate change. However, the analysis shows that the transformation towards hydrological boundaries is affected by a number of trade-offs. These are the trade-offs between, firstly, (a) the improved fit between the social and the ecological system and (b) the misfit between scales within the social system. Secondly, a trade-off exists between (a) correct classification along hydrological boundaries (holistic approach) and (b) a feasible size for effective management, meaningful stakeholder participation and financial viability, which may require a splitting and merging of hydrological entities and thus a violation of the hydrological principle. These trade-offs can only be met through a combination of intense communication, cooperation and coordinated action between the involved organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is expected to affect water supply if extreme climatic events and unpredictable rainfall patterns become more prevalent. Bulk infrastructure tends to determine urban communities' vulnerability to water supply and this infrastructure tends to be managed by the government. This suggests that water supply adaptation will require government capacity and commitment - often lacking in the developing country context. This article focuses on the processes impeding and facilitating adaptation to climate change within the urban water sector in the City of Cape Town, South Africa. The case study explores water management at the city scale, highlighting how actors currently respond to water stress and the challenges they face in integrating climate change information into water management. The case study results suggest that the best ways to facilitate adaptation are to focus on areas where development needs and responses to climate change impacts are connected, and focus support on adaptation processes rather than outcomes. This approach is likely to ensure that climate change responses are not seen as competing with non-climate development priorities, but as part of the solution to them. This is likely to create incentives for the global South to respond to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa is a country of contrasts with far ranging variations in climate, precipitation rates, cultures, demographics, housing levels, education, wealth and skills levels. These differences have an impact on water services delivery as do expectations, affordability and available resources. Although South Africa has made much progress in supplying drinking water, the same cannot be said regarding water quality throughout the country. A concerted effort is currently underway to correct this situation and as part of this drive, water safety plans (WSP) are promoted. Rand Water, the largest water services provider in South Africa, used the World Health Organization (WHO) WSP framework as a guide for the development of its own WSP which was implemented in 2003. Through the process of implementation, Rand Water found the WHO WSP to be much more than just another integrated quality system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the fundamental problem of water scarcity in South Africa and demonstrates how wind-powered reverse osmosis desalination technology offers a viable alternative to augment the current domestic water supply. Case studies from Algeria and the Canary Islands illustrate the experiences of those two countries in the adoption of desalination technologies for converting seawater to drinking water. In addition to easing water shortages and averting a looming water crisis, desalination technologies present broader opportunities for South Africa to establish itself as a key player in the water supply industry while tapping into the large potential market for such technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nitrate-nitrogen concentration in water supplied to clinics in Limpopo Province is too high to be fit for human con- sumption (35 to 75 mg/ℓ NO3-N). Therefore, small-scale technologies (reverse osmosis, ion-exchange and electrodialysis) were evaluated for nitrate-nitrogen removal to make the water potable (< 10 mg/ℓ NO3-N). It was found that the reverse osmosis process should function well for nitrate-nitrogen removal. Nitrate-nitrogen could be reduced from a concentration of 35 to 43 mg/ℓ in 1 case to a concentration of between 1.4 and 5.5 mg/ℓ in the treated water. In another case it could be reduced from 54 to 72 mg/ℓ to 12 to 17 mg/ℓ in the treated water. The water was also effectively desalinated. The ion- exchange process could also reduce the nitrate-nitrogen concentration to less than 10 mg/ℓ in the treated water. However, the water could not be efficiently desalinated and the process should function better when the level of total dissolved solids in the feed is not very high. The electrodialysis process should also function well for nitrate-nitrogen and salinity removal. However, the electrodialysis process is more complicated to operate. The reverse osmosis and ion-exchange processes are therefore suggested for nitrate-nitrogen removal at clinics. Capital costs for small-scale reverse osmosis and ion-exchange units are estimated at ZAR7 000 and ZAR10 000, respectively. Operational costs for reverse osmosis and ion-exchange are estimated at ZAR3.16/m3 and ZAR3.60/m3 of treated water, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review provides an overview of the current state of knowledge on the prevalence of nitrosamines in drinking water, especially nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), and discusses published research on the detection, mechanisms of formation, and removal of nitrosamines. While the number of published reports in the South African context is very limited, this review also attempts to contextualise and report specifically on the challenges for South Africa. Besides direct industrial or human-derived contamination, nitrosodimethylamine can be formed through a chemical reaction between monochloroamine and an organic-based compound such as dimethylamine which is frequently detected in surface water. It has been suggested that chloramination of surface waters with a high concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) could result in elevated NDMA formation. Growing evidence suggests that NDMA occurs more frequently and at higher concentrations in drinking water systems that practise chloramination compared to systems that use chlorination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transition to democracy in South Africa in 1994 catalysed new forms of governance in all sectors of society including water resource management. This paper examines the extent to which traditional governance systems have been acknowledged and incorporated into these new water management institutions and approaches. The research focused on understanding the cultural, religious and customary practices and rules relevant to water resource management as well as the roles of traditional leaders in 2 water user associations in the Eastern Cape Province. Findings from the research reveal that both state governance systems and traditional governance systems are relevant to water resource management in the study areas. However, management is predominantly guided by state-driven strategies which are based on statutory legal systems. Yet, traditional governance systems, including customary laws and cultural and religious practices, have an important role to play in achieving the purposes of the water user associations. Failure to acknowledge and incorporate aspects of these traditional governance systems may undermine the ability of government to achieve the objectives of the National Water Act. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discharges from informal settlements cause numerous adverse water quality impacts on urban areas and on receiving waters. These problems reflect local conditions with respect to economic development, level of environmental protection (including the associated infrastructure), institutional arrangements and public awareness. Development of comprehensive tools for selection of drainage management interventions, even at planning levels, is still at its early stages in South Africa. Municipalities in South Africa face many challenges in identifying, assessing and selecting the right interventions and/or strategies to address the impacts of land use on receiving waters. A spreadsheet-based model was developed in this study specifically to assist in identifying, selecting and evaluating interventions to manage storm- and grey-water quality. The model also consists of modules: to quantify water quality management objectives (load reduction targets) of pollutants of concern, to formulate implementation strategies by combining different mixes of interventions at different levels of implementation, and to cost and select the optimum management strategy. In the Alexandra settlement investigated, the identified interventions to achieve management objectives optimally consist of educational programmes, erosion and sediment control, street sweeping, removal of sanitation system overflows, impervious cover reduction, downspout disconnections, removal of illicit connections to storm drains, establishment of riparian buffers, use of rainwater tanks and exfiltration systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More than 50% of South Africa's catchments are deemed to be over-allocated. The challenge is to find ways to bring the over-allocated catchments back into balance in a manner that does not shock the socio-economic fabric of the country. The logical starting point is to try to do better with less water. In this article, water conservation and water demand management (WC & WDM) options are discussed, with particular reference to the irrigation sector as it is the dominant water user in South Africa. The concept of banking water, which incentivizes irrigators to become more water use efficient, is also explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]