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Bone retouchers are a technological appliance used to perfect lithic tools efficiently. They are most frequently found in Middle Palaeolithic contexts. In this paper, we present a group of bone retouchers from the Mousterian Level XV of the Sopeña rock shelter (Asturias, Spain). The bone part preferred was the middle part of the shaft of long bones: Most of them are on metacarpals, followed by metatarsals, femurs, and tibias. The most used animal species is adult red deer. These retouchers have either one, two, or three active areas, with a central disposition. The impact marks are close together; oval pits are common, as well as straight, sinuous, and irregular grooves. The surfaces on these marks appear pitted and scaled. There are indications that the bones employed were relatively fresh. The length, width, and thickness of those bone fragments seem to be the determining factor when choosing them to be used as retouchers in the process of finishing lithic tools. The formats documented in Sopeña Level XV are similar to those found in other Mousterian sites in Iberia, although there is a certain variability regarding their width. The Neanderthals of Sopeña acquired the raw material for these retouchers from the faunal remains generated in the process of butchering and eating the animals. These retouchers were used as implements to perfect lithic tools made mainly on quartzite, and they were used repeatedly and maybe for a long time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Located at the center of the Cantabrian coast in a sedimentary terrace currently at the sea shore, the site of Bañugues (Gozón, Asturias) is one of the key places for studying the first settlements of the Iberian North. In the present work, we show the results of the geoarchaeological study undertaken on the bay of Bañugues and on the stratigraphic sections of the site that still subsist. Likewise, we have included the palaeogeographic study of the coast from the Cape Peñas area; the OSL ages obtained; and the revision (technological and taphonomic analysis) of the archaeological materials coming from the diggings of the 1970s. The lithostratigraphic sequence of Bañugues is composed of two well differentiated units: (1) lower, on the alteration of the substrate formed by breccia and silty and sandy materials with Palaeolithic remains, deposited by solifluction; (2) upper, disconforming from the other, formed by intertidal beachlike silt and sands, with technological remains from the Mesolithic. Concerning the chronology of the lithic materials from the Middle Palaeolithic, the fact that it was part of a solifluction deposit prevents at this moment its precise comprehension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The identification of anthropogenically-modified carnivoran bones in archaeological sites is rare in Pleistocene contexts, especially in the most ancient periods. Neanderthal groups have clearly shown a great variety of subsistence activities and the use of carnivoran resources, until rare, is also present in some archaeological sites. However, the identification of the bone surface modifications (BSM) that allow us to infer the presence of anthropogenic marks in faunal remains are usually difficult to be differentiate among other BSM. Recently, several statistical and computing techniques have been developed to differentiate among different types of BSM in an objective way. To date, the most powerful approach is the use of Convolutional Neural Networks, which are the essential part of what is referred to as Deep Learning. In this work, ResNet50 and Inception V3 models are used through transfer learning. The algorithm architecture reaches an accuracy of >96.3% when differentiating among experimental trampling, cut and tooth marks. Once the transfer models were re-trained with the experimental BSM, they were used to classify several archaeological BSM previously identified as cut marks by human analysts. These BSM have been found on a bear ulna and on a hyena phalanx, both recovered at the Navalmaíllo Rock Shelter (Madrid, Spain). The BSM located on the hyaena phalanx have been identified as cut marks with a high probability while marks on the bear ulna are non-anthropogenic. This bone adds to the existing sample of anthropogenically-modified carnivoran elements by Neanderthal populations and hint to use of carnivore pelts by Neanderthals. • Computer vision allows correct analysis of Neanderthal cut marks on a hyena phalanx. • Computer vision also allows to interpret correctly trampling marks on a bear ulna. • These cut marks are clearly related to skinning activities of the hyena pelt. • This evidence is the first related to skinning of a hyena in the Pleistocene record. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a case-study in Palaeolithic archaeology focusing on formation processes at cave- and rock-shelter-sites in a Mediterranean context and on the correlation between site deposits, Quaternary surface sediments and the morphology of the surrounding land. We study three sites located in the basin of River Mula (Murcia, Spain): the cave-site of Cueva Antón and the rock-shelters of Finca Doña Martina and Abrigo de la Boja, in the Rambla Perea valley. They are examined through an integrated geoarchaeological approach that takes into account geomorphological, stratigraphic and soil micromorphological data. The three sites are found within a short distance and cover similar time spans within the Upper Pleistocene but have different formations and show distinct degrees of preservation of the archaeological record. Cueva Antón features a densely-stratified, mostly alluvial succession, with excellent preservation of stratigraphic layout and sedimentary facies. The succession represents a well-preserved record of past activity of the River Mula and can be correlated to its open-air alluvial system. The Rambla Perea sites, despite their immediate vicinity, underwent distinct formation dynamics, with a complex interaction among the site deposits and the hillslope along which they are found, and exhibit different degrees of preservation of archaeological layers and features. We summarise the evidence from these sites and then discuss its implications for site formation, for the preservation of the archaeological record and for the correlation between the ‘inside’ (the archaeological successions preserved within caves and in rock-shelters) and the ‘outside’ (the geomorphological setting of the land and the evolution of Quaternary surface dynamics through time). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The exploitation of rocks from secondary deposits is attested widely in the European Middle Palaeolithic. However, few studies have focused on analysing the implications derived from the management of these deposits. The fluvial terraces near the Mousterian site of Roca dels Bous have been sampled to determine their lithological composition and cobble morphology. Comparison with artefacts recovered from level N12 indicate selection patterns in the fluvial deposits of black quartzite, as well as preferential management of blanks with specific morphological and volumetric characteristics. This approach reveals behaviours involved in the acquisition, transport, transformation and discard of stone tools necessary for Neanderthal subsistence, and indicates interest in the study of secondary deposits and local raw materials in Middle Palaeolithic contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A systematic archaeological field survey has been undertaken in the area around Prado Vargas Cave (Cornejo, Burgos, Spain), which shows evidence of human occupation in the Middle Paleolithic. The aim of the study is to locate outcrops of raw materials which could have been used for the fabrication of tools by these Neanderthal groups. An archeological field survey of 46.6 km2 in 94 different locations was undertaken, in which flint and other materials of archaeological and ethnographic interest were recovered. Different analytic techniques were employed (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy [FTIR], X-Ray Diffraction [XRD], and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry [ICP-MS]) with the aim of typifying the lithic materials found in ten selected samples of flint on primary position in limestone and ten samples selected from flint on secondary position in clay. We have also undertaken the analysis of nine samples of archaeological flakes derived from the cave excavations. The flint samples were typified and the results of the data from the FTIR, XRD and ICP-MS were interpreted taking into account the similarity between samples of natural and archaeological origin, and the localization of possible areas of gathering of the lithic resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The debate over hominid–carnivore interactions during the Pleistocene has been mainly approached from a human perspective, with the aim of contributing to the knowledge of the evolution of human cultural capabilities in the different periods. Regarding the European Middle Palaeolithic, it is most commonly concluded that Neanderthals were clearly superior to carnivores in the context of competitive relationships, with respect to both prey and the occupied space. Therefore, the presence of some human groups in the environments usually inhabited by carnivores could be perceived, from an ecological point of view, as a disturbance in the balance of the ecosystems. In order to assess the ecological impact of these human groups, the present study analyses the Unit III of Teixoneres Cave (MIS 3; Moià, Barcelona, Spain) through a comparison of palaeoecological and archaeological data. The site is located in the highlands between the two main rivers connecting the central region of Catalonia with the Mediterranean coast: the Llobregat and the Ter. Palynological and paleontological data indicate a cold landscape dominated by woodlands and some wet meadows. The high vertebrate diversity recorded in this stratigraphic unit suggests an environment marked by a balanced predator–prey dynamic, which may have been interrupted by the occasional presence of small human groups. According to the archaeological data, these human groups tended to predate the same prey as did carnivores, which may have generated a certain perturbation in the system. However, the small size of the groups and the brevity of their visits to Teixoneres Cave seem to have minimised the perturbation, allowing the environment to recover its original balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract: We present the results of an exercise in Middle Palaeolithic palimpsest analysis geared toward the identification of human occupation episodes. It is based on a combined reading of the archaeosedimentary deposit and the archaeological record of Stratigraphic Unit IV from Abric del Pastor (Alcoy, Alicante, Spain), chronologically framed within MIS 4–5. A study of site formation processes coupled with archaeostratigraphic analysis of the lithic record incorporating Raw Material Units (RMU) and refits, as well as with combustion features and faunal remains enabled identification a minimum of 4 and a maximum of 6 human occupation episodes within lithostratigraphic units IVa, IVb and IVc. Through our data it reaches a high resolution temporal frame close to the ethnographic time scale, which constitutes a significant contribution for the knowledge of human occupations types and landscape use in the Mediterranean rim of the Iberian Peninsula during Middle Palaeolithic. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This article presents the initial results of a new study of faunal remains from Gatzarria Cave, a Middle-to-Upper Palaeolithic transition site the Pyrenees of southwestern France (department of the Pyrénées Atlantiques). This study attempts to document diet breadth during the late Mousterian, while paying due attention to recently identified problems regarding the stratigraphic context of the assemblages. The faunal analysis focuses on a subset of late Mousterian faunal remains from layer Cj at the site. Taphonomic analysis suggests that humans were the primary bone accumulators. The assemblage is dominated by a single large-bodied species, red deer; smaller-bodied ungulates are poorly represented. Skeletal part representation indicates that within-bone nutrients contained in marrow were probably a key resource for these foragers. The overall pattern of remains is interpreted as evidence of narrow-spectrum foraging, a pattern which appears to be repeated at other Mousterian sites in the Pyrenees region. This may mean that local Neandertal populations existed at relatively low densities. However, this suggestion must be tempered by the fact that settlement patterns, including occupation seasonalities and site functions, are not yet well understood for this region. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Within the framework of nutritional ecology, subsistence diversification is achieved by adding different species to a diet, but explanations for this diversification vary. In the Broad Spectrum Revolution approach, explanations include demographic, ecological, nutritional and technological factors, as well as the mobility of hunter-gatherer groups. The origin of small animal assemblages is a key issue underlying this debate, as these were an important food resource for several non-human predators (diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey and terrestrial carnivores). To establish the genesis of these accumulations, it is important to analyse the anatomical and age profiles of the animals, the bone breakage patterns and the bone surface modifications. With this aim, we present data from the Level IV faunal assemblage of Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain). Level IV, corresponding to MIS 5e, shows human use not only of small animals but also of large- and small-sized carnivores in addition to ungulates. Anthropogenic evidence includes cut-marks, intentional bone breakage, burning patterns and human tooth-marks. The utilisation of other less frequent animals could be related to a generalist human behaviour based on the exploitation of a broad range of prey, and could also be associated with an early diversification of the human diet in this locality. This study aims to provide data concerning human consumption of small prey, to establish the processing sequence both of large/medium and small animals and to contribute to the knowledge of human subsistence strategies in the European Middle Palaeolithic. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The archaeological site at PRERESA (Madrid, Spain) has been dated to 84 ± 5.6 ka by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) (MIS 5a). An area 255 m2 was excavated and 754 lithic pieces were recovered, as well as a large amount of micro and macro vertebrate remains, including proboscidean bones. The aim of this paper is to outline the results of the taphonomic study of these remains. The identification of cut marks on a number of the bones recovered strengthens the theory that the exploitation of extremely large mammals was more than just a marginal practice before the Upper Palaeolithic. Additionally, the identification of green-bone fractures and percussion marks confirm for the first time, that the bone marrow of these taxa was also consumed. Few other cases of this practice have been identified, firstly because obtaining this substance would not be an easy matter, and secondly because similar nutritional needs can also be met by the consumption of brain matter, which is easier to acquire. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The interior of the Iberian Peninsula has few Middle Palaeolithic sites, especially when compared to other areas of the Mediterranean Basin and the northern Spanish region. Few in number too are the zooarchaeological and taphonomic studies that throw light on the relationships between Neanderthal groups, their environment, and the use they made of it. The present work examines, both zooarchaeologically and taphonomically, the faunal remains of levels F and D of the Navalmaíllo Rock Shelter (Pinilla del Valle, Madrid, Spain) - the largest collection of such remains ever studied from the Iberian interior. The results allow this site to be interpreted as a Neanderthal hunting camp where occupations were short-term. Neanderthal people were the main agents that accumulated the site's faunal remains - largely those of large bovids and to a lesser extent medium-sized cervids. The activity of carnivores was also identified, but these animals mostly left behind the remains of small prey or fed upon carcasses abandoned at the camp by human hunters. • Navalmaíllo Rock Shelter has been interpreted as a Neanderthal hunting camp. • All phases of butchery were identified, along with the extraction of bone marrow. • Bovines and cervids are the more common taxa in the assemblage. • There is a low degree of competition between hominins and large carnivores. • The faunal assemblage was little affected by post-depositional processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study represents the first integrated approach to the lithic raw materials exploited by the Neanderthals that occupied the Abric Romaní site (NE Iberia). Focusing on chert as the most abundant raw material (>80% of the assemblages), we determine the potential procurement areas and the mobility patterns. Geo-archaeological surveys within a radius of 30 km from the site documented 32 primary locations with silicifications. The chert abundance ratio, a quantitative approach to the raw material availability, together with macroscopic and petrographic analyses, confirm the underexploitation of the local raw materials (<10 km). The main procurement areas are located between 16 km (Sant Martí de Tous chert) and 24 km (Panadella chert), indicating different procurement strategies and mobility patterns. Stone tool assemblages from levels M and Oa fall within a foraging radius, whereas level P, in part, suggests a logistical radius, demonstrating a complex scenario of extensive knowledge and intensive exploitation of the landscape among Neanderthals. • Landscape exploitation and mobility among Neanderthals at Abric Romaní (NE Spain). • Petrologic analyses and statistics models determine the stone tools provenance. • Results suggest a regional range for procurement, denying the distance-decay model. • Different mobility strategies are detected independently of technological constraints. • Behavioral complexity based on group size, occupation duration and/or site function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The timing of the end of the Middle Palaeolithic and the disappearance of Neanderthals continue to be strongly debated. Current chronometric evidence from different European sites pushes the end of the Middle Palaeolithic throughout the continent back to around 42 thousand years ago (ka). This has called into question some of the dates from the Iberian Peninsula, previously considered as one of the last refuge zones of the Neanderthals. Evidence of Neanderthal occupation in Iberia after 42 ka is now very scarce and open to debate on chronological and technological grounds. Here we report thermoluminescence (TL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates from El Salt, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Alicante, Spain, the archaeological sequence of which shows a transition from recurrent to sporadic human occupation culminating in the abandonment of the site. The new dates place this sequence within MIS 3, between ca. 60 and 45 ka. An abrupt sedimentary change towards the top of the sequence suggests a strong aridification episode coinciding with the last Neanderthal occupation of the site. These results are in agreement with current chronometric data from other sites in the Iberian Peninsula and point towards possible breakdown and disappearance of the Neanderthal local population around the time of the Heinrich 5 event. Iberian sites with recent dates (<40 ka) attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic should be revised in the light of these data., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)