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Heavy rainfall due to tropical cyclones (TCs) in the North Indian Ocean (NIO) adversely impacts nations frequently. Though extensive research has focused on TCs in the NIO, less attention has been given to the connection between TCs and extreme events in Sri Lanka. This study examined atmospheric characteristics during sixteen extreme events, focusing on linkages between TCs, the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), and mechanisms behind heavy rainfall associated with TCs over Sri Lanka. The results showed that in the pre-monsoon period, TCs move northward with high water vapor (WV) content accumulated in the Southern Hemisphere. This main WV flow over the equatorial Indian Ocean (EIO) is connected with TCs, causing considerable damage in the southwestern part of Sri Lanka. During negative IOD years, strong westerly winds create cyclonic circulations on either side of the equator. Conversely, during the post-monsoon period, the IOD phase has no significant effect. TCs generally followed westward tracks, supported by winds from the Northern Hemisphere, and caused heavy rainfall in the Eastern, Northern, and Northcentral provinces in Sri Lanka. These TCs are isolated from the main WV flow over EIO. Such observed common characteristics during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons are key factors contributing to extreme rainfall in Sri Lanka. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The teleconnection between the Asian monsoon system and North Atlantic forcing is an enduring prospect of the Earth's climate. During the Holocene interstadial, the Indian summer monsoon showed asynchronous weakening links to ice rafting events documented in the North Atlantic region. However, the sensitivity of the Indian Winter Monsoon in response to North Atlantic cold spells is unclear due to a lack of compelling evidence. This study aims to extract the deglacial Indian Winter Monsoon signals using lithogenic tracers in coastal sediments and explore its association with the North Atlantic cooling episodes. A 5.1 m sediment core was retrieved from Pottuvil Lagoon in the southeastern coast of Sri Lanka, and the concentrations of K, Rb, Mg, Al, and Ti in 101 sub-sections were analysed using ICP-MS. The core- chronology was established by Bacon 2.2 age-depth modelling based on calibrated AMS 14C dates. The monsoon signal was reconstructed using element proxies and compared with the drift ice indices from the North Atlantic deep-sea sediments. Results revealed distinct phases of intense monsoon activity at 2553–2984 years BP, 3899–5021 years BP, and 5244–5507 years BP intervals with intermittent weak phases during 2253–2553, 2984–3899, and 5021–5244 years BP. The episodes of the intensified Indian Winter Monsoon coincided with Bond Events 2, 3, and 4, showing a strong coherence with the North Atlantic's deglacial climate. Thus, on a millennial scale, North-Atlantic cooling has triggered intense winter monsoon conditions over the tropical Indian Ocean region from the mid to late Holocene. In comparison with regional monsoon archives, the Pottuvil winter monsoon record exhibits an anti-phase association with the Indian Summer Monsoon during Holocene ice-rafted debris events. The geochemical approach executed in this study could provide new insight into the millennial-scale pacing of the winter counterpart of the Indian monsoon links to climate extremes of high northern latitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to evaluate the impact of a policy intervention on a group of units over time, it is important to correctly estimate the average treatment effect (ATE) measure. Due to lack of robustness of the existing procedures of estimating ATE from panel data, in this paper, we introduce a robust estimator of the ATE and the subsequent inference procedures using the popular approach of minimum density power divergence inference. Asymptotic properties of the proposed ATE estimator are derived and used to construct robust test statistics for testing parametric hypotheses related to the ATE. Besides asymptotic analyses of efficiency and power, extensive simulation studies are conducted to study the finite-sample performances of our proposed estimation and testing procedures under both pure and contaminated data. The robustness of the ATE estimator is further investigated theoretically through the influence function analyses. Finally our proposal is applied to study the long-term economic effects of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami on the (per-capita) gross domestic products (GDP) of five mostly affected countries, namely Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, India and Maldives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies have shown that rapid sea surface temperature (SST) warming in the tropical Indian Ocean (IO) significantly modulates the summer monsoon rainfall (SMR) over India. However, it remains unclear how the IO SST warming affects the SMR in Sri Lanka (SL). Therefore, based on observations and reanalysis data, this study investigates the impact of IO warming on SMR variability in the wet‐zone of SL during 2001–2020. The results revealed that the SMR (May–September) in SL's wet zone is increasing and is associated with rapid SST warming in the Arabian Sea during the summer monsoon. Although it is reported that the SMR may decrease over India due to the weakening of land‐sea thermal gradient in summer associated with IO warming, the rapid warming of the AS appears to enhance the SMR in the wet zone of SL. The warming of the AS during summer strengthened the low‐level easterlies, favouring moisture convergence and convection over SL, which enhanced the SMR of the wet zone of SL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies have pointed out an increased warming over the tropical Indian Ocean (IO) and how such warming could alter the convection and rainfall in the region. In this study, using observational/reanalysis datasets from 1981 to 2020, we show that the early Maha rainfall of Sri Lanka (SL) has been increasing, and it is considerably influenced by the North‐western IO sea surface temperature (SST) increase in the second inter‐monsoon (SIM). A significant warming in the North‐western IO alters the zonal SST gradient and strengthens the low‐level circulation, which induces large‐scale convergence over the western IO during SIM, contributing to the enhancement of rainfall over SL. However, despite the substantial impact of IO warming, the moderate correlation suggests the importance of examining other factors, which may influence the rainfall variability of SL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami caused 230,000 fatalities and massive physical damage along the shorelines of the Indian Ocean. Holocene sedimentary archives along the coastline of Sri Lanka can provide evidence for similar past events. The objective of our current study is to investigate the sedimentological and geochemical characteristics of Sri Lankan paleo-tsunami deposits, and their chronology. Sediment samples were collected down to 10 m depth using core drilling at a sheltered site (low-lying swale depression) in Koddiyar Bay (Trincomalee) on the east coast of Sri Lanka. Visual stratigraphic observations and grain size analyses were carried out to identify lithological changes. Bulk sediments, shells, and wood fragments were used for 14C age dating. Seven sand layers were identified throughout the core in this marshy wetland. Sedimentological observations and geomorphological features show that sheltered/protected swales of the inner bay have a high potential for preservation of paleo-tsunami sediments. Three possible paleo-tsunami deposits were identified earlier than 700 years, ca. 2000 years, and ca. 2700 years. These paleo-tsunami sand layers exhibited relatively high total organic carbon (TOC) contents due to admixture of continental shelf and lagoon sediments. Analysis of paleo-tsunami records suggests that the Andaman Sea is vulnerable to both 'low-risk and high-frequency' and 'high-risk and low-frequency' type tsunamis, whereas other areas in the Indian Ocean are more prone to destructive and low-frequency type tsunamis. This study contributes to improving tsunami risk assessment and mitigation strategies along the east coast of Sri Lanka. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the twenty-first century, wireless communication tools have become indispensable in our daily lives, particularly during a pandemic, playing a crucial role. However, it is important to recognize that prolonged and excessive exposure to radiofrequency (RF) waves, which serve as carriers for these wireless communication systems, can have detrimental health effects. The aim of this study is to assess the spatial distribution and compare the levels of RF radiation emitted by the GSM900, GSM1800, UMTS, LTE2.6, and WLan2.4 frequency bands in the cities of Colombo and Kandy in Sri Lanka. The plane wave power density values for each frequency band were measured at designated survey locations using a SPECTRAN HF6065 spectrum analyzer with an HL7060 directional antenna. A total of 31 survey points were selected in Kandy City, while Colombo City had 67 survey points covering various public locations. The findings reveal that Colombo City exhibits a higher concentration of scattered hotspots in the LTE2.6 frequency band, whereas Kandy City demonstrates a higher concentration in the GSM900 frequency band. Furthermore, comparing the average results, the RF radiation pollution in Colombo City is more than 50% higher than that in Kandy City. The measured maximum RF level was detected in Colombo City in the frequency band GSM1800, and it is only 0.11% of the maximum permitted level as established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Air pollution is a significant issue that affects almost all the countries in the world while predominating in South Asian Regional countries due to poverty, less attention, and less awareness towards the implementation and obeying of air quality guidelines in public. As a developing country, Sri Lanka stands at an optimum state of national air quality compared to other SARC because it is an island with a minor population compared to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc. Maldives and Bhutan lie straightforwardly in owing mild air quality in SARC. However, SARC is far behind the world in maintaining optimistic air quality nationwide. Ambient air pollution-attributable deaths have become interim in past decades, a severe burden to the sustainable existence of SARC. A well-established systematic epidemiological, empirical studies and revisions regarding air pollution, strategic planning for mitigating air pollution, and frequent Spatio-temporal pollution monitoring nodes are necessary for Sri Lanka to achieve the sustainable goal. Other South Asian countries: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and Maldives, also should pay attention to minimizing outdoor air pollution nationwide for the betterment of future existence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The thermal stress of oceans causes coral bleaching, which induces loss of life in coral reefs and makes them exposed to other threats which directly and indirectly affect millions of other species that inhabit the reef. However, studies focusing on how those thermal stresses affect Sri Lankan fringing reef ecosystems are scarce. Hence, the patterns of long-term and short-term fluctuations of sea surface temperature (SST) over the shallow reefs around the country were studied by separating them into different zones as the eastern coast (Passikudha, Kayankerni, Adukkuparu, Parrot Rock, and Pigeon Island), the southern coast (Beruwala Barbarian, Hikkaduwa, Unawatuna, Ahangama, Mirissa, Madiha, Polhena, and Devundara), and northern-northwestern coasts (Valiththoondal, Palk Bay, Mannar, Kalpitiya, Thalwila, and Uswatakeiyawa). The 1 km Multiscale Ultrahigh Resolution (MUR) Level 4 SST dataset was used to analyze seasonal and interannual SST variability from 2005 to 2021. The data were correlated with the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), Ekman velocity, and wind stress curl. The annual, seasonal, and monthly variability of SST on different coasts is significantly different. Higher increasing trends of SST from 0.0324 to 0.0411 ℃/year are observed on different coasts, and most of the time higher positive anomalies are recorded after 2014. The First Inter Monsoon (IM-1) and the month of April are more critical since they reach the maximum SST, and the minimum is in the North West Monsoon (NWM) and January. Significant positive relationships are recorded between the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) index and the monthly average SST on different coasts, which was robust on the southern coast. Therefore, tropical coral reefs in Sri Lanka are severely threatened due elevation of SST by global warming and climate variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accelerated soil erosion and landslides are destructive consequences of road development and intensive agriculture in the central highlands of Sri Lanka. Properly designed vegetation covers can play a vital role in erosion control. Identifying a plant that can adapt to eroded land with a low‐nutrient supply is critical for natural erosion management. A perennial creeper legume, Vigna marina, adaptable for marginal lands and used to control soil erosion in Australia, was introduced to Sri Lanka via the 2004 tsunami. The objective of this study was to assess V. marina under five different soil substrates, including a reference treatment (RT) recommended for optimal legume growth and subsoil (SS) and decomposing parent materials (DPM) without or with 20% Pinus wood biochar (SSb, DPMb). The growth parameters of V. marina were in the order RT > SSb = DPMb > SS = DPM. Following V. marina growth, nitrogen (N) content in DPM and DPMb increased from non‐detectable to 1.83 and 0.99 mg g−1, respectively. The SSb and SS recorded an increase in N by 1.38 and 0.77 mg g−1, respectively. The RT lost soil N by 3.31 mg g−1. Compared to the RT, root nodules were 3× in SSb and DPMb, 2× in SS, and >2× in DPM. Amending SS and DPM with biochar enhanced the growth of V. marina. The V. marina, in conjunction with biochar, can be an effective tool to provide vegetative cover to exposed soils and, thus, minimize soil erosion on road cuts and other land resources. Core Ideas: Vigna marina can potentially grow under extremely degraded soil conditions.Poor soil fertility favors the root nodulation and biological nitrogen fixation of V. marina.Biochar enhances legume growth, root nodulation, and biological N fixation in degraded soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding spatio-temporal variation in rainfall is important to water resources planning and management activities. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis and harmonic analysis are considered state-of-the-art techniques for analysing rainfall variability. This study considered monthly rainfall data from 18 principal stations and 21 secondary stations in Sri Lanka. K-means clustering was applied for identifying rainfall regimes. Rotated EOF analysis provided four key factors related to climate seasons of which the first two factors were more prominent, explaining more than 80% of the total variance. Harmonic analysis showed that northeastern and southwestern parts of the country possess strong annual and semi-annual variation, respectively explaining 90% of the total variance. Both EOF and harmonic analysis can be considered effective tools for identifying rainfall characteristics. However, harmonic analysis results successfully identified seven well-defined rainfall regime characteristics, which could be explained using tendency in data, amplitude, phase angle, and seasonal contribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has had a significant impact on the tourism industry in many countries, leading to changes in policies and adaptations to attract more visitors. However, there are few studies on the effects of climate change on Sri Lanka's tourism industry and income, despite its importance as a destination for tourists. A study was conducted to analyze the holiday climate index (HCI) for Sri Lanka's urban and beach destinations to address this gap. The analysis covered historical years (2010–2018) and forecasted climatic scenarios (2021–2050 and 2071–2100), and the results were presented as colored maps to highlight the importance of HCI scores. Visual analysis showed some correlation between HCI scores and tourist arrivals, but the result of the overall correlation analysis was not significant. However, a country-specific correlation analysis revealed interesting findings, indicating that the changing climate can be considered among other factors that impact tourist arrivals. The research proposes that authorities assess the outcomes of the study and conduct further research to develop adaptive plans for Sri Lanka's future tourism industry. The study also investigated potential scenarios for beach and urban destinations under two climate scenarios (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) for the near and far future, presenting the findings to tourism industry stakeholders for any necessary policy changes. As Sri Lanka expects more Chinese visitors in the future due to ongoing development projects, this study could be valuable for policymakers and industry stakeholders when adapting to changing climate and future tourist behavior. While more research is needed to fully understand the effects of climate change on Sri Lanka's tourism industry, this study serves as a starting point for future investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the limited land area in the Colombo Business District, the development of reclaimed land in the Colombo coastline was initiated. Colombo Port City is the first-ever mega-reclaimed land project in Sri Lanka. Land reclamations in coastal areas very often have liquefaction-related issues. Liquefaction is a process which occurs mainly due to natural seismic events. Even though Sri Lanka is located in an earthquake-free geological region, events like the 2004 Tsunami and recent studies confirmed that seismic events cannot be ignored and should be considered in the design stages of structures. Therefore, the determination of the effects of seismic events on the port city project is of prime importance. The primary purpose of this paper is to present the assessment of liquefaction triggering potential and the post-liquefaction vertical settlement. Seismic soil liquefaction was evaluated for the port city in terms of the Factor of Safety against liquefaction along with the depth of the soil profiles under the seismic demand of five earthquake scenarios that could be anticipated. The analysis process was done for 142 locations using a Cone Penetration Test-based simplified empirical procedure. The results showed that the Factor of Safety against liquefaction resistance decreases with the depth, and post-liquefaction vertical settlement is considerably high in Phase 2 land plots at the site. An earthquake with a magnitude of 6.0 and a peak ground acceleration of 0.2 has been identified as the most critical combination among the selected design seismic scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was conducted to analyze spatial and temporal variations of lightning activity over Sri Lanka and the surrounding coastal belt region bounded by 5.75–10.00 N and 79.50–89.00 E. Flash data collected by the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) on NASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite from 1998 to 2014 and the Lightning Imaging Sensor placed on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2018 to 2021 were used for the study. The Mann-Kendall test and Sen's slope estimator were applied to annual and seasonal lightning data from 1998 to 2014 to identify the trends in the TRMM dataset. A positive slope of 0.23 was obtained for annual flash densities, while a slope of 0.956 was obtained for First Inter-Monsoon (FIM) seasonal data. Considering the ISS data, the annual variation of lightning activity in 2020 displays the lowest flash density, whereas the highest is represented in 2019 with a value of 10.48 flashes km−2 year−1. The highest mean flash density is observed in Colombo in 2019 at a value of 34.85 flashes km−2 year−1. Overall, April displayed the highest annual flash distribution from 2018 to 2021, whereas the second peak was mostly viewed around September and November. All districts have displayed a significant amount of lightning during April for the period 2018 to 2021. FIM displayed the highest lightning distribution over the country. When considering the seasonal variation, districts belonging to the wet zone and intermediate zone displayed most flashes during the FIM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrological extremes are common throughout the world and can be considered a globally significant phenomenon with severe environmental and social consequences. In recent decades, especially in the second half of the 20th century, Extreme Hydrological Events (EHEs) have attracted extensive attention. Physiological and anthropogenic factors have increased the frequency and severity of hydrological extremes worldwide in the last few decades. Recently, it has become a significant environmental issue in Sri Lanka. Both floods and droughts are widespread throughout the country, and the influence of floods is becoming more common every year. Currently, the frequency and severity of EHEs in the Kelani River Basin (KRB), Sri Lanka, are very common and have increased due to climate variations. Therefore, this study focused mainly on evaluating the EHEs and the impact of long-term El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), Sea Surface Temperature (SST), and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) dynamics on extreme events. Rainfall Anomaly Index (RAI) and Extreme Precipitation Indices (EPIs) were calculated to examine the EHEs and their spatial variability. In addition, the relationships between EHEs and ENSO were investigated using several climate indices based on SST anomalies. Both observed and satellite-derived daily precipitation from 1951 to 2019 were used to assess the EHEs in the KRB. The trend of EHEs and the change points were evaluated using the Pettitt test, and teleconnection with global indices was examined using the correlation coefficient in the R application. The result of the study revealed that the pattern of EHEs varied spatially from 1951 to 2019. The strong La Niña years showed a high degree of teleconnection with EHEs in April (r = 0.622 at 0.05 significance level) and August (r = −0.732 at 0.05 significance level). NINO3.4 and the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) have shown a significant positive impact on EHEs in the Northeast Monsoon (NEM) period. This research on KRB will be a popular scientific measure that can provide scientific results and solutions for the comprehensive decision-making process in the future. Investigating the global physical changes that influence EHEs is critical to taking the necessary steps to reduce the severity of hydrological extremes in Sri Lanka. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-resolution seismic data of the Ramasetu region revealed three subaerial unconformities S1, S2, and S3. S1 is the youngest subaerial unconformity, whereas S3 is the oldest. These subaerial unconformities have been determined based on the presence of channel-incision signatures. Identified buried channels originated in the Palk Strait and debouched in the Gulf of Mannar. Youngest buried channels became most active during MIS 3 (~60-29 ka) and were buried entirely at ~7.0 ka. The study suggests that the Palk Strait evolved as a large multicentered freshwater reservoir during the last glacial period and remained a freshwater reservoir until seawater started encroaching the region at ~8.5 ka. The Ramasetu region was a potential habitat zone for foragers, with fresh and saline water ecosystems available at opposite banks. During the Microlithic and terminal Pleistocene, Homo sapiens needed to cross high-energy rivers using floaters/rafts in wet seasons of MIS 2 and 3. At the same time, they used a direct walkable land link in the extreme dry season of MIS 2. During the early to mid-Holocene, foragers required floaters/rafts or artificial structures (such as bandh/bridge) to cross shallow, low-energy estuarine patches of the Ramasetu. The Palk Strait region was not crossable without using boats/ships in the last ~7 ka except during minor sea-level falls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This paper investigates gender differences in the treatment effects of business grants on firm performance following natural disasters, and seeks to identify the mechanisms underlying the unequal effects. Method: A panel data-set from an experiment in Sri Lanka is used to measure the difference in the treatment effects of a business grant on the performance of female and male-owned firms following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The sample of 608 microenterprises includes 297 female-owned firms and 311 male-owned firms. There are 338 firms (Male = 176, Female = 162) in the treatment group that received the grant and 270 firms (Male = 135, Female = 135) in the control group that did not receive the grant. Data on firm performance, firm characteristics and owner characteristics were collected in 13 survey waves from April 2005 to December 2010. Firm performance, which is measured by firm profit, is assessed by employing linear regression with fixed effects in an intention-to-treat analysis. Findings: The results suggest that the business grant has a positive impact on the performance of male-owned firms, but zero effect on that of female-owned firms. Several potential mechanisms drive the results, including gender differences in business investment, household expenditure and initial business closures. The results also show a positive treatment effect of the business grant on the psychological recovery of recipients, but there is no evidence supporting gender differences in this dimension. Contribution: This paper provides new evidence on gender differences in the treatment effects of business grants on firm performance in the context of post-disasters, and has implications for business recovery programs aimed at supporting female microentrepreneurs in the aftermath of large-scale catastrophes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Faculty of Geomatics is one of the nine faculties of the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. It offers high quality geomatics related degree programmes, and consists of a well-qualified staff and latest technological resources. It delivers highly job oriented programmes and the curriculums of these programmes have been developed to meet various national and international standards and the requirements of professional bodies. As the first time in the history of the Sri Lankan university system, the BSc in Surveying Sciences Degree Programme was introduced by the Faculty of Geomatics established in 2004. This was an essential requirement for the country due to the high demand of surveying industry. Throughout the past decades it is being greatly developed both in infrastructure and human resources. Presently, the faculty has a student population of about 500 with the aim of producing about 150 graduates annually. Geomatics graduates have a variety of rewarding local and global employment prospects as land surveyors, land administrators, site managers, or site engineers in both the public and private sectors, including cadastral, mining, hydrographic surveying, and any other remote sensing and GIS-related disciplines. Graduates with knowledge in the geospatial stream could work as GIS analysts, image analysts, image interpreters, and in other positions in the business. Graduates of the program can take on useful tasks in their field with ease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the southwest monsoon, a cold dome referred to as the Sri Lanka Dome (SLD) appears east of Sri Lanka in response to the cyclonic curl in the local wind field. In general, SLD forms around May/June and decays during September. However, satellite altimetry data revealed an anomalous propagation pattern of the SLD with a lifetime of more than six months in the southwestern region of the Bay of Bengal (BoB) during 2014. This study is carried out to explain the plausible forcing factors which produced this anomalous event using satellite altimetry, surface currents, and wind data. Previous studies have shown that in general, the SLD propagates westward and then northward from its initial centre. In 2014, the SLD first appeared east of Sri Lanka around 6.5-7.5° N, 83-84° E and propagated eastward/northeastward from its initial centre (7.1018° N, 83.7111° E) with forcing from wind-stress and the Summer Monsoon Current (SMC). During early August it started to propagate westward until mid-October with the support of westward geostrophic flow and upwelling Rossby waves, noted between 10-12° N latitudes. Then the western boundary currents (WBC) in the BoB further facilitated the trajectory of the SLD and guided it towards the Arabian Sea (AS), where it disappeared in late December 2014, south of India (4.5474° N, 78.0223° E). Thus, we show that the stronger winds and SMC existed during 2014 in the BoB, guided the SLD eastward/northeastward compared to its general trajectory, and that allowed the SLD to undergo the forcing from westward geostrophic flow, upwelling Rossby waves and WBC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adapting agricultural systems to changes in seasonal precipitation is critical for the agricultural sector in Sri Lanka. This paper presents evidence on the adoption drivers and the welfare impacts of agricultural strategies adopted by Sri Lankan rice farmers to adapt to low rainfall conditions. We estimate the causal impact of adopting different adaptive strategies across three different dimensions: (a) sensitivity to water stress, (b) household productivity, and (c) household livelihood conditions. The results highlight important trade-offs faced by farmers between reducing vulnerability to water stress and maximizing profitability and welfare outcomes. These findings are important for informing policies to support climate adaptation among smallholders, and to build and improve the climate resilience of Sri Lanka's rice sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We used citizen science and inexpensive methodology to assess the distribution of the jungle cat Felis chaus, a relatively common species in Sri Lanka but the least studied of the four wild cat species occurring in the country. We obtained three types of records of the jungle cat: geo-referenced photographs of the species from the public; sightings obtained from print and social media, and provided via an online sighting form; and sightings by field biologists. We combined the 112 unique records obtained in this way with the 21 records from the 2012 National Red List distribution map of the species, and used MaxEnt to predict habitat suitability for the species. The new sightings were primarily in drier regions, expanding the known extent of occurrence for this species in Sri Lanka. Of the new sightings, 7.1% were road kills. Distance to nearest riverine forest, annual precipitation and distance to the nearest reservoir were the most important variables explaining habitat suitability. These findings validate our hypotheses that the species is more widespread than demonstrated previously and also ranges in human-dominated landscapes outside protected areas. Our study provides a model for how ecological and behavioural information for common species can be obtained inexpensively and incorporated into species distribution models. Studies of species such as the jungle cat, which are neither threatened nor charismatic, will help ensure that we keep common species common. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban dwellers experience overheating due to both global and urban warming. The rapid urbanisation, especially in hot, humid cities, lead to greater exposure to heat risk, both due to increasing urban populations as well as overheating due to global/urban warming. However, a nation-wide exploration of thermal comfort trends, especially in the hot, humid tropics, remains relatively unexplored. In this paper, we explore the recent historical trends (1991–2020) in outdoor thermal comfort across the entire island of Sri Lanka and evaluate the likely effects of known urban climate mitigation strategies — shade and vegetative cover. We find that 'very strong heat stress' is moving towards 'extreme heat stress' that was barely registered in 1990s and is now common across two-thirds of the landmass of Sri Lanka in the hottest month (April). Even in the coolest month (January), 'moderate heat stress' unknown in the 1990s is now becoming a common trend across the most densely populated parts of the country. High shading and vegetation could reduce heat stress, even in the hottest month, but its utility will diminish as the warming continues in future. As such, policies to reduce global warming needs to be urgently pursued while simultaneously adapting to urban warming in Sri Lanka. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sri Lanka Dome is a cyclonic recirculation feature in the Southwest Monsoon Current system in the southern Bay of Bengal. Cooler sea surface temperature (SST) in the vicinity of this system is often denoted as the Bay of Bengal "Cold Pool." Although the wind shadow of Sri Lanka creates a region of strong positive wind stress curl, both sea level height dynamics and the distribution of cool SST cannot be explained by wind stress curl alone via traditional Ekman pumping. Moreover, the Cold Pool region is often aligned with the eastern portion of the Sri Lanka Dome, as defined by sea surface height. Previous work has attributed the spatial SST pattern to lateral advection. In this analysis, we explore whether low-latitude weakly nonlinear "vorticity" Ekman pumping could be an explanation for both cooling and observed changes in sea level height in the southwest Bay of Bengal. We show that weakly nonlinear upwelling, calculated from ERA5 and AVISO geostrophic currents, collocates with changes in sea level height (and presumably isopycnals). While the SST signal is sensitive to several factors including the net surface flux, regional upwelling explains changes in AVISO sea level height if the nonlinear terms are included, in both the Sri Lanka Dome and the region of the Southwest Monsoon Current. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sri Lanka, located in the northern Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea on its western side and the Bay of Bengal on its eastern side and experiences bi-annually reversing monsoon winds. This brief overview explored the dynamics of the surface circulation and coastal upwelling in the waters around Sri Lanka, particularly along the southern coast, using satellite imagery and numerical simulations using the Regional Ocean Modelling System (ROMS). The results confirmed the presence of the reversing current system, between the equator and Sri Lanka, in response to the changing wind field: the eastward flowing Southwest Monsoon Current (SMC) during the Southwest (SW) monsoon and the westward flowing Northeast Monsoon Current (NMC) during the Northeast (NE) monsoon, respectively. Along the eastern and western coasts, during both monsoon periods, flow is southward converging along the south coast. During the SW monsoon the Island deflects the eastward flowing SMC southward whilst along the east coast the southward flow results from the Sri Lanka Dome recirculation. The major upwelling region was located along the south coast resulting from southward flow converging along the south coast and subsequent divergence associated with the offshore transport of water. The location of the flow convergence and hence the upwelling centre was dependent on the relative strengths of wind driven flow along the east and west coasts: during the SW (NE) monsoon the flow along the western (eastern) coast was stronger migrating the upwelling centre to the east (west). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Integration of traditional knowledge (TK) to decision making in agriculture is a continued practice of the smallholder farmers in the tropics. There is a knowledge gap in the use of TK in weather or climate prediction by farmers to minimize climate risks. Hence, a field survey was conducted using a pre‐tested questionnaire coupled with key informant discussions. The study focused on the farmers practicing livestock‐based farming systems in Thabbowa village of the north‐western province of Sri Lanka. Results: About 94% of farmers had access to national level weather forecasting (WF); however, 54% were not confident enough of the accuracy of the WF. Only elderly farmers had confidence in predicting the weather using TK. While using the outcome of the production, those elderly have passed the outcome of the TK‐based weather predictions (WP) to the rest of the farmers where 46% of the study sample used such information at some level of decision making in agriculture. However, it was evident that the farmers used TK‐based WP combined with the national level WF for deciding on agricultural operations. Plant phenology, animal behavior and astronomical evidence were the commonly used biotic and abiotic factors in TK for WP. The behavior of birds was the prominent TK‐based animal indicator for short to medium range and seasonal WP. Conclusion: The smallholder farmers need to be strengthened to use national WF with the correct application of TK‐based WP to fulfill the gaps in deciding climate‐adaptation strategies in mixed‐farming systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The characteristics of wave spectra in the swell-dominated seas in the Chancay Bay, Peru, and off the coast of Hambantota, Sri Lanka, were studied based on in situ measurements. According to the characteristics of the spectral shapes, the measured wave spectra were divided into single- and double-peaked spectra. For the single-peaked measured spectra, many widely used wave spectrum models were adopted to fit the measured wave spectra. By comparing the fitting results with the measured wave spectra, these wave spectra were insufficient for describing the peak enhancement or the high-frequency tail shape of the measured spectra. The spectral shape parameters were found to play an important role in the expression of the spectrum models. The peak enhancement factor γ in the Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP) spectra could adjust the peak height of the spectrum and the shape parameter m of the spectrum high-frequency tail in the Wallops spectra made the wave spectrum more flexible. Therefore, an improved single-peaked wave spectrum was proposed by combining the JONSWAP and Wallops spectra. It performed better than other spectrum models in describing the swell and has advantages in both the wave characteristic parameters and wave spectral shapes. The spectrum peak width parameter σ was relatively consistent in the two measurement stations and both around 0.24. Moreover, the proposed model overcame the limitations of the excessively high estimated slope in the high-frequency range of the Wallops spectrum; the shape parameter m of the spectrum high-frequency tail is primarily distributed in the range (1, 5). For the double-peaked measured spectra, the Ochi–Hubble spectrum was found to work better than the Torsethaugen spectrum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The British Garrison Cemetery is a burial ground for Europeans that is located in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Consisting of graves that date from the early to late 19th century, it provides information on the social status and individual identities of the European settlers in the hill country of the island, and also the circumstances of their deaths. The cause of the high mortality rates among infants, children, and young adults there may be related to the lack of medical facilities, cholera epidemics, and the vulnerability of Europeans to tropical diseases. Graves of individuals who belonged to Nonconformist groups, such as Methodists and Presbyterians, are located on the same grounds as the graves of Anglicans. This apparent harmony indicates that the political and religious rivalry that existed between Anglicans and Nonconformists in England was minimal in British colonies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bathymetry, gravity, and magnetic data across the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) along a WE track between 5°N to 1°N latitudes and 77°E to 90°E longitudes are used to identify crustal deformation due to tectonic features such as the Comorin Ridge, 85°E ridge, Ninety East Ridge, and major fracture zones. The tectonic features were interpreted along the North Central Indian Ocean using 2D gravity modelling to understand the origin and tectonic activity of the subsurface features. The Comorin Ridge is coupled with gravity anomalies with small amplitude varying 25–30 mGal in comparison with the ridge relief which suggests that the ridge is compensated at deeper depths. The focus of the present study is to prepare a reasonable crustal model of the Central Indian Ocean using gravity and magnetic data. The crustal depths of the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) determined from gravity data using the spectral method are compared with the 2D gravity modelling results. It has been observed that the crustal depths obtained from the Spectral method are in good correlation with results obtained from 2D gravity modelling. The average basement depths for the profiles were obtained as ~5 km and perhaps deviated approximately 1–2 km from the mean. In the case of curie isotherm, the crustal depths vary 9–12 km for all magnetic profiles which may indicate deformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the hitherto unexplored subject of nonstate rebels seeking the status of sole representatives. Why do nonstate armed groups seek the status of sole representatives?, What strategies do they employ to achieve the status of sole representatives?, Is the status merely symbolic, or does it fetch tangible benefits? These research questions are explored by treating Sri Lanka's LTTE as a case study. Primary and secondary data formed the basis of the analysis. The LTTE used three strategies to achieve a hegemonic disposition within the Tamil community. They are: (1) elimination of rival groups, (2) incorporation of some groups, and (3) battlefield efficacy. The rebels used the claim of sole representation to ensure bilateral talks with the government, get the ban on it lifted, and control the proposed interim administrative structure. The strategy worked to a certain extent, but at least partially contributed to its downfall in 2009. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sri Lanka is located in the northern part of the Indian Ocean, experiencing Northeast monsoon and Southwest monsoon every year. Through wave observation, a long period wave mixing with wind wave and swell was found in nearby sea. Based on the wave situation in this area, the data of meteorological and hodrological reanalysis database was used as the input condition, the relevant charts were used as the topographic condition, and the MIKE 21 SW model was used to calculate the waves in nearby sea of Hambantota Port. According to different input conditions, three modes which are the ERA -interiam,ERA5, and the mixed waves of wind sea and swell ERA5 (ERA-Is, ERA-IIs, ERA-IId) were considered in wave calculation. The calculated results were compared with the observed results, the results show that the the fitting between the model value and observed value of effective wave height is relatively close. ERA-Is and ERA-IIs have slightly better similarity performance in mean wave period, ERA-IId had much better similarity performance in peak wave period. With large swell and small wind wave co -existence condition, ratio of peak wave period and mean wave period is higher than typical J spectrum wave. The traditional J spectrum method (ERA-Is, ERA-IIs) underestimates the wave energy, and ERA-IId takes both wind wave and swell into account, resulting a more precise description on local wave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Spatially tracking of the multimodal waves around Sri Lanka is implemented. • The connection between the tracked wave systems and wind systems is revealed. • The contribution of each wave origin to the wave climate is determined. • Methods for characterizing multimodal wave climate are compared. Typically, ocean waves comprise both wind sea and swell systems, each exhibiting different characteristics in terms of decay, propagation, and their impact on engineering. Distinguishing between wind sea and short/long swell systems is critical for both scientific research and engineering applications, such as climate assessment, harbor agitation, and structural design, which has led to a growing interest in studies of multimodal wave climate. This study investigates the origin and characteristics of multimodal waves based on spectral partitioning and wave system tracking, taking Sri Lanka in the North Indian Ocean as a case study. The data is generated from the spectral wave model WAVEWATCH III. Results show that the wave systems mainly originate from the southwest monsoon, northeast monsoon, southeast trade winds, and southern storm belt. Tropical cyclones can occasionally contribute to multimodal waves. Subsequently, four spectral zones of wave origins are defined according to the joint probability density distribution of partitioned mean wave directions and peak periods estimated by a kernel function. Storm belt waves are responsible for over 36 % of the total wave systems. Finally, two ways of describing wave climate based on the partitioned bulk wave parameters are compared. One offers a thorough understanding of the wave climate from the perspective of wave origin; however, it loses the combined information of wave systems. The other method, while lacking a guaranteed coherence between the wave systems over time, preserves the crucial combined information of wave systems, which is useful in generating a reduced dataset comprising representative cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most post-disaster resettlement projects reflect the ideals of providers (state, donors, and designers) rather than those of the displaced. Thus, most such projects ultimately failed to provide the intended benefits for their residents. This paper presents some key lessons learned from studying the planning and design decisions that housing providers (architects and donors) made when designing resettlement projects in Sri Lanka in the wake of the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami. Through interviews, this article studied five housing projects by gathering the providers' design intentions and the residents' feedback on their lived experiences. Findings indicate that residents of these new settlements are dissatisfied as the designs did not align with their cultural and lifestyle aspirations. The providers lacked knowledge of the community design process, the housing needs of this primarily economically disadvantaged population, and how to provide for displaced peoples. The findings of the study indicate four key lessons for sustainable resettlement designs: the need for residents' involvement in the design process, the provision of physical and social support systems, the need for incremental growth of housing, and finally the use of appropriate building technology. These lessons would be useful for future post-disaster reconstructions, especially in the less-affluent communities around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As with earthquakes, river floods, water waves, and wind intensities, a tsunami intensity has to be synthetic and comprehensive to be efficient. Tsunami impact is complex because the effects can be felt on the beach, on inundated areas and also at berths and anchors. Within the same local area, a tsunami may severely impact the population on the coast, while its effects may be negligible on marine bodies (boats). Most existing tsunami intensity scales are based either on water elevation or on induced currents. However, it is commonly admitted that both variables should be considered simultaneously. Several existing intensity scales were integrated and were made consistent with each other. An original intensity scale is then derived based on analysis of the interdependency between the maxima of tsunami amplitude and induced current: The dimension of the couple composed by two variables is analyzed, in particular through the derivation of a linear relationship using the long wave theory and the use of a fully nonlinear numerical experiment. Our intensity scale is particularly well adapted to numerical studies, for which the two variables are naturally derived within an entire computational grid. Once the tsunami intensity scale was set up, it was briefly applied to a particular case study: the impact of the Sumatra tsunami, dated December 26, 2004, on the coast of Sri Lanka. Indeed, the tsunami scales proposed herein represent an initial framework of study and can be further improved through new or revisited tsunami observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The long-term economic recoveries catastrophic disasters are poorly understood. In contrast, the policy literature is full of aspirational plans to "build-back-better" (BBB) — a recovery that leads to improvements above and beyond the pre-disaster status quo. Yet, BBB remains ill-defined. It is clearly multi-dimensional, but here we focus on assessment of building back a better economy. The central objective of our paper is to propose a more concrete definition of BBB and test it against Sri Lanka's recovery after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. To do so, we propose four criteria against which one should evaluate BBB policies, and then we specifically evaluate these for the recovery as it was experienced in Sri Lanka. These criteria are safety, speed, fairness (inclusiveness), and socio-economic potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami prompted a relocation process of an unprecedented scale in Sri Lanka, relocating thousands beyond the government imposed coastal buffer zone. Amidst the relocatees were thousands of children whom were exposed to multiple risks and stresses. These impacts caused by relocation remain largely unexplored. This paper investigates the impact of involuntary relocation, experienced by children relocated to Cinnamon Garden settlement and Tea Garden settlement of Galle district, Sri Lake. The paper focuses on (a) what are the impacts children experienced due to forced relocation?, (b) What is the nature of those impacts?, (c) What is the possibility of using a risk model to identify these impacts? Case studies were conducted with a purposively selected sample of individuals whom were relocated as children. The findings suggests that children suffered from social impacts such as disruption of social relationships failing to develop new social networks, decline in education levels and victimized to bullying and discrimination. The study successfully employed the Michael Cernea’s (2000) impoverishments risks and reconstruction to identify key negative and positive impacts of forced relocation, initiating the development of a risk model that can specifically identify the impact of relocation on children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the long term impact of relocation on tsunami affected families who were resettled far from the city of Galle, Sri Lanka due to re-imposed buffer zone regulations. The study adopted a longitudinal study design where the researcher collected qualitative data from selected families for a period of ten years by using in-depth interviews from four settlements in the Akmeemana Divisional Secretariat (Green Village, Salzberg, China Charity and Tea Garden). It is evident from the analysis that relocation has been merely considered to be a donation of a house to a family displaced by the tsunami than having considered relocation as a process when planning and implementing these projects. Thirteen years after involuntarily relocating families into unplanned settlements some of them have been forced to move back in to the buffer zone as they were not able to successfully cope with various stresses and risks generated by involuntary relocation. As a consequence, the host community were encouraged to purchase or rent these houses vacated by tsunami beneficiaries for a reasonable sum. The researcher concludes by stressing the importance of people centric policy guidelines for the sustainable relocation of disaster induced displacement in Sri Lanka. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the recent past Sri Lanka has experienced several significant natural disasters. Above all others, the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 had a devastating effect on more than one million people. With the aim of effectively managing all phases of a disaster and to enhance the resilience of the community, the Disaster Management Act was passed in 2005 to provide necessary immediate legal provisions, and was later revised into a national policy. Furthermore, the Disaster Management Centre (DMC) was also established. At present, the DMC and all the line agencies focus on disaster management functions under the ministry of disaster management. The comprehensive disaster management program was prepared in 2014 and it is to be used up until 2018. Furthermore, it was proposed to identify mechanisms to integrate the Sendai Framework into the Sri Lankan national disaster management framework. However, during recent disasters, the DMC and the disaster management framework was under severe criticism from the public as well as the technical community. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and effectiveness of the existing disaster management framework in Sri Lanka in managing all phases of a disaster. Since the main governing policy for the DM and Disaster Risk Reduction in Sri Lanka is the Sri Lanka National Disaster Management Policy (SLNDMP), it was investigated whether the policy is applied effectively and efficiently. In addition, alignment with comprehensive global frameworks like the Sendai Principles was checked in parallel to identify its alignment with global standards. SLNDMP was evaluated against seven criteria, which were identified after carefully analyzing the requirements of the Sendai Framework. Applications of the SLNDMP was evaluated with respect to three disaster incidents which occurred recently; the collapse of the garbage dump in Meethotamulla on April 2017, the Colombo floods and the Aranayake landslide during May 2016. In addition, some of the 37 points indicated in the SLNDMP were also considered in this study. Finally, recommendations were provided for improvements to the policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the history of Sri Lanka, the Indian Ocean Tsunami which occurred on 26 th December 2004 could be considered a major natural disaster with catastrophic consequences. The damage from Tsunami in Sri Lanka was so widespread unlike for many other countries. The main objective of the study is to investigate the current Tsunami resilience level and address the resilience gap by providing feasible recommendations thus building a resilient community to Tsunami. The study was carried out among hundred Tsunami affected families across five highly affected Grama Niladhari divisions in Panadura Divisional Secretariat division. These were selected based on convenience sampling technique. Data was collected from both primary and secondary information sources using a questionnaire survey with a scale of 0-5 where five represents "excellent" and zero is "condition absent". The data was quantitatively analyzed under a framework which combines eight significant resilience elements; governance, society and economy, resource management, land use and structural design, risk knowledge, warning and evacuation, emergency response and disaster recovery. The results highlighted that coastal community resilience to Tsunami was around medium level (2.5) in most dimensions. The highest (2.4) and lowest (1.3) scores were recorded by risk knowledge and society and economy respectively, out of all resilience elements. Further the current resilience level of the community was recognized as 40% and there exists a 60% gap to achieve the ideal condition. Therefore, this should be taken into consideration to improve resilience for all dimensions of the resilience framework by the relevant authorities of the government. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami caused significant damage to the health system in Sri Lanka. Rebuilding infrastructure and improving the mental health system were targets of recovery policies. Retrospective analyses of the post-tsunami health system recovery in Sri Lanka lack the perspectives of local stakeholders, including health care providers. Methods: In 2014 we interviewed 23 Sri Lankan physicians from the Eastern and Southern regions. Participants were recruited with snowball sampling.We used a content analysis approach in analysing the transcriptions. Results: Sri Lankan physicians critiqued governance, sustainability and equity in the health system recovery. They held leadership roles as facilitators and sustainers of specific projects but were rarely formally consulted in recovery strategic planning. They identified instances of poor coordination among partners, corruption trends, local resource mismatches, regional resource disparities and the influence of the Sri Lankan civil war. Conclusions: Post-tsunami health system recovery planning and implementation in Sri Lanka did not involve local physician stakeholders in ways that have been prioritized more recently in other recovery frameworks. Despite limited formal inclusion, local physicians developed significant leadership roles that have informed their critical perspectives on the health system recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay studies the impact of the 2004 Asian Tsunami on a marginalized ethnic community of Burghers in Batticaloa, Eastern Sri Lanka. Through a case study of the displacement and re-settlement of Burgher women, their role in a cooperative society, and property ownership strategies, the essay argues that while gender positions may not have altered significantly at the macro level, changes have occurred at a micro-political level, and that these “small changes from below” mark the emergence of the women as a political community. It also points to the need, if these transformative practices are to be deepened and sustained, for developmental actors such as the state and international donors to recalibrate their approaches to rural women. This includes placing greater value on local social practices such as matrilineal inheritance that favor women in Eastern Sri Lanka. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

[Display omitted] • Downstream lake sediments show a potential of being a secondary source for REEs. • Ce was the most abundant element among all REEs in lake sediments. • Phosphate-bearing minerals are the main REE carriers. • REEs in the lake sediments were mainly transported through Jaya-Ganga from the EPD. Rare earth elements (REEs) are globally considered as critical elements due to their indispensable applications in various high-tech industries. With the ever-increasing demand, identified primary REE resources will not be able to fulfil the global requirements and thus exploration and exploitation of secondary REE deposits are essential. This work is designed to prospect REE potential in lake sediments in the proximity of the Eppawala Phosphate Deposit (EPD) in Sri Lanka. In this context, surface and core sediment samples were collected from 2 upstream lakes and one downstream lake (connected to a man-made water canal, namely Jaya-Ganga) with respect to the EPD. In the downstream, the average total rare earth element (TREE), light REE (LREE) and heavy REE (HREE) concentrations of the surface sediments were 1011.3, 904.6 and 66.6 mg/kg, respectively. The corresponding average values in downstream core sediments were 858.7, 719.3 and 100.2 mg/kg, respectively. The results suggested that the downstream lake sediments contained a high TREE content with a significant LREE enrichment compared to the upstream lake sediments. The EPD was identified as the main REE source and Jaya-Ganga, which flows across the EPD, was the main transport medium in this study. Phosphate-bearing minerals, such as fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite, derived from the EPD act as the REE carriers where REEs substitute isomorphous in the mineral lattice. Since REE grade is relatively high compared to some of the reported secondary REE sources, the downstream lake sediments could be a potential secondary source for REEs for future exploitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The impact of disasters caused by natural hazards on people in affected communities is mediated by a whole range of circumstances such as the intensity of the disaster, type and nature of the community affected and the nature of loss and displacement. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the need to adopt a holistic or integrated approach to assessment of the process of disaster recovery, and to develop a multidimensional assessment framework.Design/methodology/approach The study is designed as a novel qualitative assessment of the recovery process using qualitative data collection techniques from a sample of communities affected by the Indian Ocean tsunami in Eastern and Southern Sri Lanka.Findings The outcomes of the interventions have varied widely depending on such factors as the nature of the community, the nature of the intervention and the mode of delivery for donor support. The surveyed communities are ranked in terms of the nature and extent of recovery.Practical implications The indices of recovery developed constitute a convenient tool of measurement of effectiveness and limitations of external interventions. The assessment used is multidimensional and socially inclusive.Originality/value The approach adopted is new to post-disaster recovery assessments and is useful for monitoring and evaluation of recovery processes. It also fits into the social accountability model as the assessment is based on community experience with the recovery process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose After tsunami 2004, it was estimated that more than 98,000 permanent houses had to be rebuilt. However, ten years on, as communities, are they satisfied in their new homes? What are the indicators affecting the long-term satisfaction of resettled communities in relation to their new permanent houses. The purpose of this paper is to qualitatively evaluate the level of long-term satisfaction of two tsunami affected resettled communities in Sri Lanka in a bid to identify the indicators affecting the long-term satisfaction of post disaster resettled communities in relation to permanent housing.Design/methodology/approach In addition to the thorough literature review conducted to evaluate the state of the art in the subject area, a series of interviews were conducted with experts and tsunami affected communities in Sri Lanka to gather primary data for this research. The literature review is used to establish the initial list of indicators of long-term satisfaction of resettlements. The expert interviews and the community interviews were used to verify and refine the initially identified indicators.Findings A sustainable resettlement programme is just not merely reconstruction of a set of houses. A resettlement programme should re-establish the socio-economic and cultural life of people. Reconstruction of a house does not solve the housing issue; it is vital to look in to the indicators which can convert a house into a home and the surrounding into a neighbourhood.Originality/value This paper makes a significant contribution in terms of identifying indicators affecting the long-term community satisfaction with resettlement programmes taking into account economic, social and cultural factors with a special emphasis on post tsunami resettlements in Sri Lanka. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to introduce a guideline to mainstream women into disaster reduction in the built environment in Sri Lanka.Design/methodology/approach The paper is based on ten in-depth interviews conducted with professionals engaged in disaster risk reduction in the built environment in Sri Lanka. The interviews are complemented by a comprehensive literature review conducted on the impacts of 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on women in Sri Lanka, and the country’s status of mainstreaming women into disaster reduction in the built environment.Findings The paper presents a guideline for mainstreaming women into disaster reduction in the built environment in Sri Lanka which consists of factors influencing the process, main steps, parties responsible, required resources, required expertise, appropriate stages of development to conduct the process, barriers to the process and how to improve the process.Originality/value At present, there are no guidelines which specifically inform how to mainstream women into disaster reduction in the built environment in Sri Lanka. Such guideline is significant to reduce women’s vulnerability to natural disasters and also to tackle disaster vulnerabilities of the built environment in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT In 2004, a tsunami caused unprecedented damage and destruction in the Indian Ocean region. For Sri Lanka, the second-most affected country, with over thirty-thousand deaths and five-hundred-thousand displaced, the tsunami resulted in the introduction of new disaster management institutions, logics, and technologies. The formation and implementation of these new institutions, logics, and technologies must be understood alongside a human-made disaster: the decades-long civil war between the Sri Lankan government and the militant insurgent group of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). I outline the ways that the tsunami opened the door for national and social restructuring in Sri Lanka: the devastation of the tsunami and the logics of disaster risk management that followed it offered a political opening for new techniques of state power and projects of nation-building-a process I call disaster nationalism. This governmentality of disaster risk management plays out through an anticipation of disasters, in which disasters, both natural and human-made, are ever-possible future threats that justify ongoing practices and technologies of securitization. Yet state attempts to control the future remain in constant tension with the attitudes and opinions of people who have been affected by both the tsunami and war. These collective relations, practices, and structures of feelings are what I refer to as anticipatory states. From the calculative risk management projects of the Sri Lankan state to the everyday state of being ready and aware in the spaces of disaster, anticipation weaves into and out of experiences and encounters, its different forms and possibilities shaped by complexly layered histories and landscapes of disaster and violence, and, even, forces beyond the control of the anticipatory state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the performance of aid-funded livelihoods recovery efforts in Sri Lanka following the Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004, with special attention paid to the effects on the rural poor. It argues that successful livelihoods recovery was hampered by an excessive focus by aid agencies on entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship, and by the lack of a politically informed understanding of the economy. Based on ethnographic and survey-based research, the study demonstrates that the category of 'entrepreneur' is misleading for large parts of the economy. Indeed, the desire to build an entrepreneurial economy actually hampered successful livelihoods recovery in Sri Lanka and, in some cases, reinforced inequitable relations of power. The paper concludes that for livelihoods recovery programmes to be effective, they must be founded on an understanding of the relations of power that constitute the economy; these relations operate across scales, and are historically and geographically specific. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]