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ABSTRACT Objectives To test the hypothesis that moderate iron deficiency among children is associated with lower likelihood of infection. Materials and Methods We use data from a population representative cross sectional study of 1164 Tanzanian children aged 6-59 months from the Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey. Respondents' iron levels were assessed through serum transferrin receptor (sTfR) and anemia was assessed using hemoglobin. C-reactive protein (CRP) was used as a marker of infection. Results Nearly 25% of the children were categorized as normal (iron replete, non-anemic); 45% were IDE (low iron, non-anemic), 24% were classified as IDA (low iron, anemic), and 69 children (5.9%) were anemic but had no evidence of iron deficiency. IDE was not associated with a lower likelihood of elevated CRP compared to iron replete, non-anemic children; 45% of normal children had elevated CRP compared to 51% of IDE children ( P = 0.10). IDA, by contrast, was associated with a higher likelihood of elevated CRP (68%, P < 0.001). These results were unchanged when child, maternal, and household controls were added to a logistic regression model. Discussion Our results do not support the optimal iron hypothesis as conventionally formulated. The fact that we did not find an effect where some other studies have may be due to differences in study design, sample (e.g., age), or the baseline pathogenic ecology. Alternatively, it may be more fruitful to investigate iron regulation as an allostatic system that responds to infections adaptively, rather than to expect an optimal pre-infection value. Am J Phys Anthropol 157:675-679, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Patterns in infant and young child feeding behaviors have been the focus of much anthropological, nutritional, and demographic exploration because of their relationship to morbidity and mortality. Researchers often label these patterns as cultural, which, by definition, means that the patterns are linked to ideational factors that are shared within cultural groups. Although widely discussed, empirical tests of the shared aspect of this theory are lacking. We hypothesized a broad match between attitudes about early child feeding practices and feeding practices at the population level. We also hypothesized that proxy indicators of interaction frequency between mothers would predict sharing in responses to a set of statements about infant feeding. Data from four different ethnic groups living in two sites in rural Tanzania are examined to test these hypotheses. The results indicate that mothers' attitudes do not correspond to current public health recommendations for infant and young child feeding. Moreover, site- and ethnic-group-level differences emerge that may be consistent with the social learning hypothesis. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sukuma ethnic group appears to be expanding across Tanzania at a rate far greater than other ethnic groups in the area. In this paper, the household-level dynamics that may be fueling this expansion are explored by comparing measures of infant mortality and child health with another Tanzanian ethnic group, the Pimbwe. Consistent with expectations, the Sukuma appear to have comparable levels of fertility but lower child mortality. As predicted, compared to the Pimbwe, Sukuma children are also heavier and taller for their age, suggesting better nutritional status. Four hypotheses about why the Sukuma are so successful in this area are addressed. Surprisingly, the results show that household food security and wealth are not related to children's nutritional status, nor can maternal effects account for the observed health differences. Several lines of evidence suggest that different patterns of infant feeding practices may underlie the differences in children's nutritional status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines whether mother's kin network size in Tanzania predicts several measures of children's health and well-being, and whether any kin effects are modified by household socioeconomic status. This hypothesis is further tested with a questionnaire on maternal attitudes towards kin. Results show small associations between measures of maternal kin network size and child mortality and children's growth performance. Together these results suggest that kin positively influence child health, but the effects are small and it is unlikely that the high prevalence of undernutrition observed in this setting is influenced by the availability of kin.

Sungusungu non-state justice organizations in Tanzania exemplify large-scale cooperation. Sungusungu third-party enforcers protect property and resolve interpersonal disputes for ethnic Sukuma and individuals from other ethnic groups who have joined the hierarchically structured organizations. We use ethnographic and experimental data to highlight the importance of institutional forces when attempting to understand patterns of large-scale cooperation. We acknowledge the usefulness of considering micro-economic theories (e.g. costly signaling theory) to understand Sungusungu, but show that social institutions and a human predisposition to act as a "strong reciprocator" are important mechanisms to explain both the origins and maintenance of Sungusungu cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information related to the use of ultimatum game for measuring norms of fairness and concerns over inequality within and between groups. The study was done with individuals from Pimbwe and Sukuma, two sympatricethnic groups of Tanzania experiencing similar physical environmental conditions and state political forces. These groups live interspersed in several villages in Rukwa region, the northern section of southwestern Tanzania. Differences in the scope of institutions between these ethnic groups is pointed by ethnohistorical data. The result of the study suggests that for exposing differences between groups in their penchant for sharing and punishing, this game is a valid instrument.

Objectives: There is increasing interest in the epidemiology of immune activation among young children because of the links with mortality and growth. We hypothesized that infant and child inflammation, as measured by elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), would be associated with household assets, household size, measures of sanitation, and food insecurity. We also hypothesized that children in the poorest households and with elevated CRP would show evidence of growth faltering., Methods: A nationally representative cross-sectional study of Tanzania children 6-59 months of age. Survey data, anthropometrics, and dried blood spots were available for 1,387 children. Measures of elevated CRP (CRP ≥ 1.1 mg/l) were used to assess inflammation., Results: Fifty-four percent of the sample had CRP ≥ 1.1 mg/l. In bivariate analyses, several measures of sanitation were associated with elevated CRP but in multiple regression models only age, sex, literacy, maternal reports of illness, household size, and living in the wealthiest households predicted CRP. There were no associations between elevated CRP and any measure of child growth., Conclusions: Among children in Tanzania, a single elevated CRP does not predict poor growth functioning. Elevated CRP is associated with individual, caretaker, household, and community-level variables. Future work should strive to measure local biologies in more nuanced ways., (Copyright © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Many biocultural studies have examined the fitness consequences of polygynous marriage for women in Africa. Few studies have examined the mental health correlates of polygynous marriage despite the emerging interest by human biologists in mental health outcomes. In this study, we tested for an association between measures of psychosocial stress and marital status in a representative sample of 408 mothers in two Tanzania communities. Results showed no association between measures of psychological distress and marital status. Our results suggest that despite the widely cited reproductive costs to polygynously married women, there do not appear to be accompanying costs to mental health., (Copyright 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

There is growing awareness that common mental health disorders are key contributors to the burden of disease in developing countries. Studies examining the correlates of mental health have primarily been carried out in urban settings and focused on the burden rapid economic change places on individuals. In these settings, poverty and low education are consistent predictors of anxiety and depressive symptoms. We argue here that these variables are proxies for insecurity, and that a more general model of symptoms of depression and anxiety should focus on locally salient forms of insecurity. Building on previous work in a seasonal subsistence setting, we identify food insecurity as a potent source of insecurity in a rural African setting, and then test whether seasonal changes in food insecurity are correlated with concomitant changes in a measure of symptoms of anxiety and depression among 173 caretakers. Results indicate that food insecurity is a strong predictor of symptoms of anxiety and depression (P < 0.0001), that changes in food insecurity across the seasons predict changes in symptoms of anxiety and depression (P < 0.0001), and that this is robust to the inclusion of covariates for material assets and household production. These results hold for individuals in both ethnic groups studied (Pimbwe and Sukuma); however, at the group level the burden falls disproportionately on Pimbwe. The results add to the growing literature on the causes of population level differences in mental health disorders and suggest new research avenues and strategies to link mental health disorders with variation in physical and biosocial outcomes., (Copyright 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Objectives: To examine whether the occurrence of seasonal food insecurity was related to ethnicity, household wealth and perceived social support, and to assess whether social support was more efficacious in protecting against food insecurity in wealthier households. Secondary objectives were to assess the association between past food insecurity, current dietary intake and perceived health., Design, Setting and Subjects: A sample of 208 randomly selected mothers from two ethnic groups living in the same villages in rural Tanzania participated in a cross-sectional survey., Results: Food insecurity was highly prevalent in this area, particularly among the poorer ethnic group. Half of ethnically Sukuma households fell into the most food-secure category, compared with only 20% of ethnically Pimbwe households. Among both groups, measures of household wealth and social support were strongly associated with food security. Interestingly, social support appeared to be more effective among the wealthier ethnic group/community. Past food insecurity was also related to current indicators of dietary intake and women's self-perceptions of health., Conclusion: Greater social support is associated with food security, suggesting that it may protect against the occurrence of seasonal food insecurity. Social support also interacts with wealth to offer greater protection against food insecurity, suggesting that increasing wealth at the community level may influence food insecurity through both direct and indirect means. Seasonal food insecurity also appears to have lasting effects that likely create and reinforce poverty.

Food insecurity is a major health problem that has pervasive effects on many human biological outcomes. In particular, there are compelling theoretical and empirical reasons to expect that the relationship between food insecurity may be directly related to mental health morbidities, and may be quantifiable in developing country settings. This preliminary study examined whether caretaker reports of food insecurity were associated with anxiety and depression among four ethnic groups in two communities of rural Tanzania. In-home interviews were conducted in June-August of 2005 among female caretakers (n = 449). In addition to collecting household and demographic data, modified versions of the USDA's food security module and Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL) were used to measure food insecurity and anxiety and depression. Consistent with predictions, the results showed a strong positive correlation between a caretaker's score on the food insecurity instrument and her summed response on the HSCL (P < 0.0001). This association was maintained in all four ethnic groups, even when controlling for individual-level covariates such as caretaker's age and marital status. Issues of causality and hypotheses that might explain this robust finding are discussed, as are methodological and theoretical implications.

Anthropologists and demographers have devoted considerable attention to testing the fertility-polygyny hypothesis, which posits that polygynously married women have lower fertility than their monogamously married counterparts. Much less attention has been paid to the potential impact of polygynous marriages on the health and well-being of children. The objective of this paper was to assess whether polygynous marital status is a risk factor for poor nutritional status and growth performance among a cohort of young Tanzanian children. Using data collected from both wet and dry season periods, we tested for an association from both cross-sectional and longitudinal perspectives. Despite relatively high nutritional status compared to other agropastoralists and horticultural populations, as well as the presence of various socioecological factors that were expected to mitigate any "costs" to polygynous marriage, we found that among our target population, polygynous marital status is a risk factor for poor growth performance. This association is most pronounced in the wet season, and maintains even after allowing for the potential influences of child age and sex, and household characteristics. These results counter our original expectation, and suggest that polygyny is costly to children in this population; this does not appear to be the result of difference in early child environment or household wealth.