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Children account for a significant proportion of antibiotic consumption in low- and middle-income countries, with overuse occurring in formal and informal health sectors. This study assessed the prevalence and predictors of residual antibiotics in the blood of children in the Mbeya and Morogoro regions of Tanzania. The cross-sectional community-based survey used two-stage cluster sampling to include children aged under 15 years. For each child, information on recent illness, healthcare-seeking behaviour, and use of antibiotics, as well as a dried blood spot sample, were collected. The samples underwent tandem mass spectrometry analysis to quantify the concentrations of 15 common antibiotics. Associations between survey variables and the presence of residual antibiotics were assessed using mixed-effects logistic regression. In total, 1742 children were surveyed, and 1699 analysed. The overall prevalence of residual antibiotics in the blood samples was 17.4% (296/1699), the highest among children under the age of 5 years. The most frequently detected antibiotics were trimethoprim (144/1699; 8.5%), sulfamethoxazole (102/1699; 6.0%), metronidazole (61/1699; 3.6%), and amoxicillin (43/1699; 2.5%). The strongest predictors of residual antibiotics in the blood were observed presence of antibiotics at home (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 2.9; 95% CI, 2.0–4.1) and reported consumption of antibiotics in the last 2 weeks (aOR = 2.5; 95% CI, 1.6–3.9). However, half (145/296) of the children who had residual antibiotics in their blood, some with multiple antibiotics, had no reported history of illness or antibiotic consumption in the last 2 weeks, and antibiotics were not found at home. This study demonstrated a high prevalence of antibiotic exposure among children in Tanzanian communities, albeit likely underestimated, especially for compounds with short half-lives. A significant proportion of antibiotic exposure was unexplained and may have been due to unreported self-medication or environmental pathways. Incorporating biomonitoring into surveillance strategies can help better understand exposure patterns and design antibiotic stewardship interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aimed at examining the influence of political interference, investment guidelines and investment ethical guidelines on pensions investment decision in Tanzania. The structural equation modelling was employed to analyse primary data collected using five-point Likert scale structured questionnaires with closed-ended questions. The study reveals that political interference has a negative influence on investment decisions, indicating that increased political interference leads to a decrease in the quality of investment decisions. To ensure quality investment decisions, governance mechanisms should be strengthened, promoting independence and insulating investment managers from undue political pressures. The negative influence of political interference on investment decisions highlights the need for establishment of robust governance mechanisms to safeguard against undue political pressures. Conversely, investment guidelines demonstrate a positive influence, where following guidelines directives enhance investment decisions. This underscore the importance of well-defined and comprehensive investment guidelines that provide clear directions, criteria and restrictions. By establishing a framework for decision-making, investment guidelines can enhance the quality of investment decisions within pension funds. However, the study found no significant influence of ethical guidelines on investment decisions, suggesting that ethical guidelines do not play a significant role in shaping the investment decisions of pension funds in Tanzania. This finding raises questions about the effectiveness of ethical guidelines in ensuring quality pensions funds investment decisions. While ethical guidelines may not directly shape investment decisions, it is important for the funds to recognize the broader societal and reputational implications of their investment practices. Funds should consider incorporating ethical considerations into their investment frameworks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aimed at examining the effect of electronic banking (mobile banking, internet banking and automated teller machine) on profitability of listed commercial banks in Tanzania. The findings show that there is a positive insignificant relationship between the internet banking and bank profitability. This may be explained by hefty initial costs incurred by banks in investments for appropriate infrastructure in facilitating internet banking channel. Regarding the mobile banking and usage of automated teller machines, the study depicts that both have statistically significant positive relationship with profitability at all conventional levels of significance, the avenue that provides extra incentive for commercial banks to utilize the transaction flow to generate more profits and serve costs which would have been incurred for conventional banking practices. These findings are of great importance to managers of commercial banks in Tanzania to understand the effect of electronic banking on profitability of commercial banks, and this may assist them in making decision on adoption of electronic banking, and further enlighten the policy makers in the banking industry on the effect of electronic banking on banks profitability, which, in a way, may provide guidance in designing appropriate policy for electronic banking adoption by commercial banking in Tanzania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aimed at examining the role of banking sector development on economic growth in Tanzania. To explore the long-run relationship between financial growth and economic development a log-linear equation with auto-regressive term, accounting for serial correlation, is estimated after conducting a regression diagnostic test. The results show that financial depth positively influence economic growth, and this technically shows that the financial depth accelerates economic growth through expanding access to those who do not have adequate access to finance. The paper recommends the Government to have a policy of subsidizing access to finance to enable informal businesses, which do not have easy access to finance, to boost the growth of their businesses. Furthermore, the policymakers are encouraged to embrace an efficient banking system, and more specifically, Central Bank of Tanzania must spearhead the policy of lowering banking lending rates so as to promote investment which will ultimately foster economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims at understanding the implication of pension debt on fiscal policy in Tanzania. The paper employed a modified projected benefit obligation (PBO) approach for a period between 2010 and 2018. The results of the paper indicate a mismatch between benefit payments and members' contributions, in that outflows are found to exceed inflows for a large part of the examined period, which tends to imply that pensions adequacy is questionable, and that the system cannot be sustained for a longer period if no rescue is put in place immediately. Further, drawing from the computed life expectancy of pensioners, it is indicative that the size of the retirement age cohort will continue to enlarge over time; which would result in increasing pension obligations. Since increased pension expenditure would not be fully covered from the existing pension assets, the Government as a guarantor would be required to cover the matured pension obligations through its annual fiscal budget. Unfortunately, looking at the current National Debt sustainability report pension debt is not part of the proposed national debt. Following these findings, and since neither increasing the contribution rate nor the retirement age may not be sustainable options, the reduction of accrual rate is the most suitable option the government is recommended to implement so as to rescue the current situation. However, in a long run, the paper recommends the government to undertake a systemic pension reform, which would change the entire pension system from a defined benefits scheme to a defined contributions scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper primarily aimed at examining the influence households' demographic characteristics on the level of their financial literacy in Tanzania. The paper employs secondary data from the FinScope survey conducted by Financial Sector Deepening Trust (FSDT). To do so, the study employed both bivariate and multivariate analytical techniques. The study, reveals that the adult population exhibits large financial literacy gap- and, therefore, adults should not be considered as a homogenous group- rather gender, age, education and income levels of the households, which are showcased in this study, to also be taken into consideration while designing financial literacy improvement public initiatives. In particular, the study concludes that men are more inclined to have higher levels of financial literacy than women something which limits their financial decisions making ability. It is also concluded that younger households and those with higher income levels are equipped with higher financial literacy levels. Likewise, more educated and employed households tend to have higher levels of financial literacy. It, therefore, follows that programs to foster financial knowledge among households should be targeted at marginalized groups like women, the elderly and those with low incomes and educational attainment. As the main contribution of the research, it is highlighted that this is a pioneer study in the Tanzanian context, by proposing a model that identifies which socioeconomic and demographic factors influence the propensity for a low or high financial literacy level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines factors affecting operating efficiency of 36 commercial banks in Tanzania for the period between 2000 and 2017. The paper employs robust random-effect regression model to estimate the relationship between bank operating efficiency and its determinants. The results show that bank liquidity and capital adequacy have a positive relationship with bank operating efficiency. This suggests that capital adequacy and liquidity, not only strengthen financial stability by providing a larger capital cushion and bank required liquidity level, but also improve bank operating efficiency by lowering moral hazard between shareholders and debt-holders. Furthermore, the study shows that bank profitability and operating efficiency are directly related—implying that banks should put emphasis on improving their earning generating power to increase their operational efficiency. This paper suggests banks to increase their profitability by investing more on financial innovations and branch networks, and expand their market shares to boost their operational efficiency. Further, the paper argues that banks should optimally use their asset capacity to enhance their earnings profiles. At the same time, banks should avoid reckless lending that would increase the level of unsecured credits in banks' portfolio. Finally, the results encourage banks in Tanzania to monitor and evaluate these factors for improvement to enable the sustainability of banks and industry for economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The Helping Babies Breathe” (HBB) program is an evidence-based curriculum in basic neonatal care and resuscitation, utilizing simulation-based training to educate large numbers of birth attendants in low-resource countries. We analyzed its cost-effectiveness at a faith-based Haydom Lutheran Hospital (HLH) in rural Tanzania. Methods: Data about early neonatal mortality and fresh stillbirth rates were drawn from a linked observational study during one year before and one year after full implementation of the HBB program. Cost data were provided by the Tanzanian Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MOHSW), the research department at HLH, and the manufacturer of the training material Lærdal Global Health. Findings: Costs per life saved were USD 233, while they were USD 4.21 per life year gained. Costs for maintaining the program were USD 80 per life saved and USD 1.44 per life year gained. Costs per disease adjusted life year (DALY) averted ranged from International Dollars (ID; a virtual valuta corrected for purchasing power world-wide) 12 to 23, according to how DALYs were calculated. Conclusion: The HBB program is a low-cost intervention. Implementation in a very rural faith-based hospital like HLH has been highly cost-effective. To facilitate further global implementation of HBB a cost-effectiveness analysis including government owned institutions, urban hospitals and district facilities is desirable for a more diverse analysis to explore cost-driving factors and predictors of enhanced cost-effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper primarily aims to assess the impact of financial literacy on households' investment choices. The paper employs secondary data from the FinScope survey (2017) conducted by Financial Sector Deepening Trust (FSDT). In particular, the study aims at establishing whether the choices of investment platforms are influenced by the financial literacy level of the heads of households. To do so, the study employed both bivariate and multivariate analytical techniques. The study finds that financial literacy is positively and significantly associated with household investment choices. More specifically, as households become more financially literate, they divert from investing in informal groups towards more formal investment platforms such as investment accounts, agricultural ventures as well as personal business. Such observations may be partly attributable to the facts that individuals whose financial literacy is sound enough are more likely to be equipped with skills and knowledge of risks associated with investment opportunities and some other several financial products. The study also reveals that financial literacy is significantly associated with households' socio-demographic factors, and that the adult population exhibits a large financial literacy gap and, therefore, adults should not be considered as a homogenous group—instead, gender, age, education and income levels of the households, which are showcased in this study, should also be taken into consideration. The study opines that, because most of households, as revealed in the survey from which the employed dataset is based, are hailing from rural settings where agriculture is the main economic activity, we establish that agricultural ventures require a complete revamp for Tanzania to become a middle-income economy through its industrialization agenda. The study also proposes the financial literacy programmes to be rolled on to students from early stage of their education such as secondary schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the determinants of dividend policy in Tanzania. The study employed a panel data of non-financial firms listed on the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange (DSE) for the period 2008–2017. The paper reports profitability, liquidity, firm size, leverage, firm growth, previous dividend, and GDP as the major determinants of corporate dividend policy. According to the results, leverage, firm growth, and GDP are negatively related to dividend payout ratio while firm size, profitability, liquidity, and lagged dividend are positively related to dividend policy. More specifically, large-sized firms, highly profitable firms, and firms who paid dividend in previous years are more likely to consider paying dividend. However, payment of dividend will all depend on whether the firm is liquid enough to afford that. On the other hand, high-growth and leveraged firms would not probably consider paying dividend, and will, therefore, opt saving money to finance their expansion and honor their debt obligations. Following these results, corporate managers are advised to consider preferences of investors towards developing corporate dividend policy; to strive paying dividend whenever economically viable (as it signals the firm's reputation), and to limit excessive borrowing to protect firms from getting into financial meltdown (although borrowing is considered a control tool for agency-related problems). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper principally aims at examining the impact of capital requirements regulation on bank operating efficiency in Tanzania. The study employs bank level data for the period between 2009 and 2015. The findings show a positive and significant relationship between capital ratio and bank operating efficiency. This shows that commercial banks in Tanzania with more stringent capital regulations are more operationally efficient. This relationship proposes that capital adequacy does not only strengthen financial stability by providing a larger capital cushion but also improves bank operating efficiency by preventing a moral hazard problem between shareholders and debt-holders. This result may also imply that the increased regulations on capital requirements influence the bank’s decision to revisit their internal operations strategy in terms of strong corporate governance, risk assessment methods, credit evaluation procedures, employment of more qualified staffs, and enhanced internal control procedures. Another key finding is an inverse relationship between non-performing Loans (credit risk) and bank operating efficiency. The implication of this relationship may simply mean that the bank’s total loan and advances in combination with total deposit either due from customers or from other banks are of little importance in determining the operational efficiency of banks. This probably implies that the amount of money banks loan out is too excessive, which would attract a greater chance of default. The paper lays down some recommendations: first, banks in Tanzania are advised to invest in more advanced technological innovations to reduce the staff costs and other operating expenses to increase their operational efficiency; and, second, bank management is also advised to be more careful in the loan screening process to reduce the incidence of non-performing loans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]