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The international travel ban instituted by the Thai government in March 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how tourist camp elephants were managed, with reductions in exercise opportunities, longer chaining hours, and diminished food provisioning. This study was conducted to determine how those changes affected health and welfare biomarkers in individual elephants over the 2 years of the countrywide lockdown (April 2020-April 2022). Blood and fecal samples were collected from 58 elephants at six camps (monthly in Year 1, quarterly in Year 2) and analyzed for stress biomarkers -- fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM), serum oxidative stress [malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG)], and stress leukograms. Overall, fGCM concentrations increased within the first few months and remained higher than pre-COVID levels, as did the H/L ratio, a measure affected by cortisol. Serum 8-OHdG, an indicator of DNA oxidative damage, also increased over time, while monocytosis and lymphopenia further suggested alterations in immune function as a result of stress. By contrast, another marker of oxidative stress, serum MDA, declined, possibly in response to reduced roughage and supplement intake. A notable finding was a seasonal pattern of fGCM that was significantly different from previous studies. Whereas higher fGCM during the rainy season were observed in this study, previously, concentrations were highest during the winter, high tourist season. Thus, ironically, both the presence and absence of tourists have been associated with increased fGCM concentrations, albeit for different reasons. Camp management factors negatively affecting stress outcomes included shorter chain lengths, longer chain hours, lack of exercise, and reduced roughage and supplements. Overall, it was clear that camps struggled to maintain adequate care for elephants during the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the importance of tourist income and need for contingency plans to cope with potential future disruptions to tourism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saltlicks are fundamental resources for wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). This study aimed to assess the nutrients found in natural saltlicks (NSs) and artificial saltlicks (ASs), as well as general soils (GS) in the natural forest of Salakphra Wildlife Sanctuary (SWS) and a restoration area of Kui Buri National Park (KNP), a which is a forest in Western Thailand. We monitored 33 NSs, 35 ASs, and 20 GSs used by wild Asian elephants. In both areas, the K, Mg, Fe, and Cu in NSs were significantly higher than in ASs. The Ca and Zn in NSs of KNP were lower than the ASs of SWS. The salinity of ASs was the highest, making it significantly higher than that of the NSs in both areas. The ASs can supplement Na, thereby increasing salinity in both areas. The Ca, K, Mg, Fe, and Cu in NSs were significantly higher than in ASs, making them a primary target for elephants. These findings have consequences for conserving elephants and other large herbivores by supplementing essential macro- and micro-nutrients in ASs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper I examine P. T. Barnum's attempt to bring the first "sacred white elephant" to America, and his subsequent "white elephant war" with rival showman Adam Forepaugh, through the lens of Afro-Asian comparative racialization. I look at several accounts of white elephants that describe their skin color in terms of the US's Black/white race dichotomy and ask why this animal was a popular figure for examining the US's shifting attitude toward race and transpacific imperialism in the late nineteenth century. By reading the "white elephant war" through a comparative framework, I argue that the heterogeneous histories of both African American and Asian racialization inhered and intersected in this specific instance of racial comparison, while tracking the overlaps and oversights that this analysis reveals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is the national symbol of Thailand and linked to Thai history and culture for centuries. The elephant welfare improvement is one of the major components to achieve sustainable captive management. Microbiome inhabiting digestive tracts have been shown with symbiotic relations to host health. This work provided high-resolution microbiome profiles of 32 captive elephants at a species level by utilizing full-length 16S rRNA gene nanopore sequencing. Eleven common uncultured bacterial species were found across elephants fed with solid food including uncultured bacterium Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group, Kiritimatiellae WCHB1-41, Phascolarctobacterium, Oscillospiraceae NK4A214 group, Christensenellaceae R-7 group, Oribacterium, Oscillospirales UCG-010, Lachnospiraceae, Bacteroidales F082, uncultured rumen Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group, and Lachnospiraceae AC2044 group. We observed microbiome shifts along the age classes of baby (0–2 years), juvenile (2–10 years), and adult (> 10 years). Interestingly, we found distinct microbiome profiles among adult elephants fed with a local palm, Caryota urens, as a supplement. Potential beneficial microbes have been revealed according to the age classes and feed diets. The retrieved microbiome data could be provided as good baseline microbial profiles for monitoring elephant health, suggesting further studies towards dietary selection suitable for each age class and the use of local supplementary diets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ivory trade is of global interest due to its impacts on elephant conservation. Thailand permits the domestic trade of ivory from domesticated elephants. Knowledge of the supply chain is important for managing this market in order to achieve sustainable benefits for both wildlife conservation and human livelihoods. We interviewed elephant owners and ivory manufacturers to conduct an analysis of the Thai ivory supply chain. Five key actor groups operate in this supply chain: elephant owners, intermediaries, manufacturers, retailers, and ivory consumers. Factors influencing the supply of raw ivory vary with harvesting, use, and sale destination but the financial needs of elephant owners and market factors are particularly influential. Elephant owner decisions also depend on elephant management, sentimental values, ivory beliefs, tusk forms, and legal awareness. These findings have the potential to inform the design of monitoring the Thai ivory market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An animal's capacity for innovation or solving novel problems likely has important implications for how quickly they can adapt to environmental change. Asian elephants, Elephas maximus , living in zoos have previously demonstrated a capacity to innovate, but problem solving has never been studied experimentally in a wild elephant population. We installed puzzle boxes with multiple possible solutions inside a protected area in western Thailand to determine individual variation in innovation, as well as other behavioural traits associated with elephants' problem solving, including persistence, exploratory diversity and neophilia. We recorded 77 elephants approaching the puzzle box, with 44 interacting with the box in their first exposure. Individuals varied widely in their success opening the doors of the puzzle box. Such success was influenced by persistence and exploratory diversity in both the first interaction as well as across multiple interactions. However, when considering each individual's overall innovation scores, which represented how many different doors elephants were able to open across all of their interactions with the puzzle box, only greater persistence and interaction number were associated with reaching a higher innovation score. We observed that elephants who interacted with the box multiple times learned to open a door of any type more quickly as their interactions increased, but we did not see evidence of learning to open specific door types over time. Overall, this study about how innovation and its associated behaviours vary in wild elephants not only informs our understanding of how a capacity for problem solving is expressed, but also how well elephants may be able to adapt to, overcome or avoid increasingly frequent interactions with humans within their natural habitat. • Innovation, or the ability to solve novel problems, has been studied in animals. • Innovation has rarely been studied in the wild and never before in wild elephants. • Wild elephants can innovate with variation between individuals in how well they do. • Persistence, exploration and number of interactions all impacted success. • Flexibility and innovation may help elephants adapt to environmental change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Mitigating and reducing the impacts of elephant crop-raiding has become a major focus of conservation intervention. By observing the behaviour amongst two groups of semi-captive African and Asian elephants in Zambia and Thailand, we found that a novel olfactory crop-raiding mitigation method called the "smelly elephant repellent" elicited clear reactions from the elephants. However, unlike trials with wild elephants, the repellent did not prevent the elephants from entering areas or eating food protected by the solution. We found that elephant personality played a role in responses towards the repellent, as the individuals that entered the experimental plots were bolder and more curious individuals. Although captive environments provide controlled settings for experimental testing, the ecological validity of testing human–elephant conflict mitigation methods with captive wildlife should be strongly considered. Understanding animal behaviour is essential for improving human–elephant coexistence and for designing deterrence mechanisms, and the smelly elephant repellent may be a useful mitigation method when used in combination with other methods. Crop-raiding by elephants is one of the most prevalent forms of human–elephant conflict and is increasing with the spread of agriculture into wildlife range areas. As the magnitude of conflicts between people and elephants increases across Africa and Asia, mitigating and reducing the impacts of elephant crop-raiding has become a major focus of conservation intervention. In this study, we tested the responses of semi-captive elephants to the "smelly" elephant repellent, a novel olfactory crop-raiding mitigation method. At two trial sites, in Zambia and Thailand, African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were exposed to the repellent, in order to test whether or not they entered an area protected by the repellent and whether they ate the food provided. The repellent elicited clear reactions from both study groups of elephants compared to control conditions. Generalised linear models revealed that the elephants were more alert, sniffed more, and vocalised more when they encountered the repellent. Although the repellent triggered a response, it did not prevent elephants from entering plots protected by the repellent or from eating crops, unlike in trials conducted with wild elephants. Personality played a role in responses towards the repellent, as the elephants that entered the experimental plots were bolder and more curious individuals. We conclude that, although captive environments provide controlled settings for experimental testing, the ecological validity of testing human–elephant conflict mitigation methods with captive wildlife should be strongly considered. This study also shows that understanding animal behaviour is essential for improving human–elephant coexistence and for designing deterrence mechanisms. Appreciating personality traits in elephants, especially amongst "problem" elephants who have a greater propensity to crop raid, could lead to the design of new mitigation methods designed to target these individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aimed to enhance environmental literacy to support holistic Asian elephant conservation in Thailand. The research design involved a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods. The current perception of Asian elephants was assessed through questionnaire responses from 400 students and their parents who participated in elephant conservation programmed at Khao Yai Elephant Conservation Centre from 2018 to 2022. Following this, a SWOT analysis was conducted, and an environmental literacy programmed was developed based on research and development, as well as guidelines for holistic Asian elephant conservation. The quantitative data were analysed statistically using percentages (%), mean scores (x̄), standard deviations (SD), and t-tests, whereas the qualitative data were examined using content analysis. The research findings revealed that the majority of participants scored at a moderate level on Asian elephants. Their level of elephant knowledge was found to be low (31.50%), while their level of awareness of elephant conservation (43.18%) was moderate and that of elephant conservation expectation was high (42.25%). The development of environmental literacy was based on system theory and integrating various educational methods. We propose three practical recommendations: (1) Sufficient emphasis should be placed on building environmental literacy before establishing holistic Asian elephant conservation to facilitate sustainable development; (2) encouragement of Asian elephant knowledge and public participation in Thailand is essential; and (3) people’s attitudes towards Asian elephant conservation should shift from a singular perspective to a more holistic view that encompasses the well-being of elephants, villagers, and the overall environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the motivations of Western volunteer tourists at ElephantsWorld, Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand. An interpretive paradigm utilizing a qualitative research approach was adopted. The informants included 24 volunteer participants. Data were collected through a combination of semi-structured interviews and participant observation, and were analysed by thematic analysis. The findings of the research identify six main motivations: (i) to have close interactions with elephants; (ii) to gain in-depth understanding of local culture; (iii) to have new experiences; (iv) to relax; (v) a good match between the project/objective of the host organization and the tourists' needs and conditions; and (vi) the image and attractiveness of Thailand. These six motivations represent the co-existence of altruistic and self-interested motivations and their roles in influencing the decisions of animal-related volunteer tourists. They also indicate that while some volunteer respondents were driven by motivational factors related to the protection and well-being of the elephants (which is the objective of the volunteer tourism project), others were motivated by other, more self-interested factors that were not related to the main objective of the project at all. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: We used camera traps to survey wild mammals in a portion of western Thailand and recorded 32 species, 17 of which were IUCN-listed from Near Threatened to Critically Endangered. Of all photo-captures, 4 species comprised 62%, and several species were captured only rarely. This area holds a rich community of mammals, but some differences in photo-rates from an adjacent sanctuary and comparisons with other research on local mammals suggest that some species were missed because of their rarity and the limitations of the technique used. The Thung Yai Naresuan (East) Wildlife Sanctuary (TYNE), in the core area of the Western Forest Complex of Thailand, harbors a diverse assemblage of wildlife, and the region has become globally significant for mammal conservation. From April 2010 to January 2012, 106 camera traps were set, and, in 1817 trap-nights, registered 1821 independent records of 32 mammal species. Of the 17 IUCN-listed (from Near Threatened to Critically Endangered) mammal species recorded, 5 species listed as endangered or critically endangered included the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus), tiger (Panthera tigris), Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus), dhole (Cuon alpinus), and Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica). The northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis), large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha), Malayan porcupine (Hystrix brachyuran), and sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) were the most frequently recorded species (10–22 photos/100 trap-nights), representing 62% of all independent records, while the golden jackal (Canis aureus), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata), and Sunda pangolin were the least photographed (<0.1/100 trap-nights). Species accumulation curves indicated that the number of camera trap locations needed to record 90% of taxa recorded varied from 26 sites for herbivores to 67 sites for all mammals. TYNE holds a rich community of mammals, but some differences in photo-rates from an adjacent sanctuary and comparisons with other research on local mammals suggest that some species are rare and some are missed because of the limitations of our technique. We also conclude that the management and conservation plan, which involves the exclusion of human activities from some protected areas and strict protection efforts in the sanctuaries, is still suitable for providing key habitats for endangered wildlife populations, and that augmented and regular survey efforts will help in this endeavor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), which is an endangered species, harbors several parasites. Among the ectoparasites that it harbors, ear mites of the genus Loxanoetus have the potential to cause external otitis, an inflammation that may also be associated with the presence of other microorganisms. We assessed the relationships between ear mites, nematodes, yeast, bacterial rods, and cocci sampled from the ears of captive Asian elephants in Thailand. In addition, we discuss the possibility that dust-bathing behavior may be triggered by ear mite infestation, and that this in turn may lead to contamination of the ears with soil microorganisms. Methods: Legally owned captive Asian elephants (n = 64) were sampled. Ear swabs were individually collected from both ears and microscopically examined for the presence of mites, nematodes, yeast, bacterial rods, cocci, and host cells. Mites and nematodes were identified to species level using morphological and molecular methods. Results: Loxanoetus lenae mites were present in 43.8% (n = 28/64) of the animals (19 animals with mites in one ear and nine animals with mites in both ears). Nematodes of the genus Panagrolaimus were detected in 23.4% (n = 15/64) of the animals (10 with nematodes in one ear and five with nematodes in both ears). In adult elephants (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.0278) and female elephants (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.0107), the presence of nematodes in both ears was significantly associated with the presence of mites. In addition, higher categorical burdens of nematodes were also significantly associated with the presence of mites (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.0234) and epithelial cells (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.0108), and marginally significantly associated with bacterial cocci (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.0499). Conclusions: The presence of L. lenae mites in the ear canals of the Asian elephants was significantly associated with the occurrence of other microorganisms, such as soil nematodes, bacteria and yeasts. The presence of mites in their ears may increase the dust-bathing behavior of elephants which, if confirmed, represents a further paradigmatic example of a parasitic infestation affecting animal behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat fragmentation due to human activities creates threats to wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and increases human-elephant conflicts (HEC). This study analyzed connectivity maps among the core habitats of wild elephants in the eastern part of Thailand. Resistance surfaces, associated with geographic and land use features, were used to estimate the dispersal of wild elephants. An increase in roads, reservoirs, and agricultural areas in 2020 was noted. In addition, the increase of artificial water sources and roads has increased HEC. To reduce HEC, the study of suitable landscape corridors for wild Asian elephants can guide the development of effective connectivity among the habitat patches. The scattered locations of reserved forests induce wild elephants to enter agricultural areas. In 2020, during the dry season, wild elephants used 3552 habitat patches, 253 population patches (4875 km2), 8 breeding patches (68.1 km2), and 253 other patches (193.9 km2). However, habitat patches were reduced to 1961 patches (3850.9 km2) in the wet season. The 16 suitable corridors were recommended for connecting the finest wild Asian elephants. These suitable corridors can be used as a guideline to construct effective landscape corridors for wild Asian elephants' movement among the habitat patches. This finding can help the local managers and villagers incorporate and design restoration areas for the movement and survival of wild Asian elephants and develop suitable areas for agricultural purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colic and diarrhea are common gastrointestinal (GI) disorders in captive Asian elephants, which can severely impact health and lead to mortality. Gut dysbiosis, indicated by alterations in gut microbiome composition, can be observed in individuals with GI disorders. However, changes in gut microbial profiles of elephants with GI disorders have never been investigated. Thus, this study aimed to elucidate the profiles of gut microbiota in captive elephants with different GI symptoms. Fecal samples were collected from eighteen elephants in Chiang Mai, Thailand, including seven healthy individuals, seven with impaction colic, and four with diarrhea. The samples were subjected to DNA extraction and amplification targeting the V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA gene for next-generation sequencing analysis. Elephants with GI symptoms exhibited a decreased microbial stability, as characterized by a significant reduction in microbiota diversity within individual guts and notable differences in microbial community composition when compared with healthy elephants. These changes included a decrease in the relative abundance of specific bacterial taxa, in elephants with GI symptoms such as a reduction in genera Rubrobacter, Rokubacteria, UBA1819, Nitrospira, and MND1. Conversely, an increase in genera Lysinibacillus, Bacteroidetes&#95;BD2-2, and the family Marinifilaceae was observed when, compared with the healthy group. Variations in taxa of gut microbiota among elephants with GI disorders indicated diverse microbial characteristics associated with different GI symptoms. This study suggests that exploring gut microbiota dynamics in elephant health and GI disorders can lead to a better understanding of food and water management for maintaining a healthy gut and ensuring the longevity of the elephants., Competing Interests: Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2025. The Author(s).)

Summary: While many species are affected by trafficking in their products, some take centre stage, including elephants, rhinos, pangolins and helmeted hornbills, and we report an open trade that continued in these items in eastern Myanmar between 2015 and 2020. We surveyed Myanmar's border towns of Tachilek and Mong La, recording volumes, prices, origins and trade routes. We observed c. 16 500 ivory items, 8 helmeted hornbill casques and 264 beads, over 100 African rhino horn items and over 250 pangolins (mainly skins and scales). In 2020, asking prices in Mong La for rhino horn tips were US$10 770, rhino horn bracelets US$5385, helmeted hornbill casques US$2424 and big ivory bangles c. US$800, with prices being stable overall since 2017. We estimate the combined monetary values at US$0.25–0.30 million for Tachilek and US$0.75–2.00 million for Mong La. Mong La's market today far surpasses Tachilek's, being on the border of mainland China. Mobile phones and online trading allow customers to order items without bothering to cross the borders. Commitment to address the illegal wildlife trade across Myanmar's borders requires a greater degree of cooperation and coordination amongst the relevant authorities in Myanmar, China and Thailand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Asian elephant Elephas maximus is of cultural significance for the Thai people. The development of legal protection for elephants in Thailand dates back to the 17th century, reflecting concerns about both human livelihoods and elephant conservation. The legal status of privately owned, captive elephants differs from that of wild individuals, with consequences for the lawful use of ivory from captive animals. Prior to 2015, the lack of comprehensive measures to control the Thai ivory market enabled the laundering of illegally sourced ivory in the country. The Thai government introduced legal reforms in 2015, imposing strict controls over the possession and domestic trade of ivory from captive Asian elephants, and aligning the protection of African elephants and their ivory with CITES regulations. Nonetheless, the sustainable use of Thai ivory remains disputed, and international pressure to close the commercial trade in domestic ivory persists. Here we review this complex situation, aiming to inform future reforms. Consolidation of laws related to elephants and ivory would facilitate law enforcement and compliance. Use of an electronic database would improve the monitoring of ivory movements and aid the implementation and enforcement of laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Approximately one-third of Asian elephants are managed under human care, participating in educational, cultural, religious, and tourist activities. Management conditions vary considerably among venues, raising questions about whether welfare needs are consistently being met, particularly for Asian tourist camp elephants. To evaluate the well-being of elephants engaged in tourist activities, an evidence-based tool is needed for routine assessments to identify potential welfare risks, aid in the development of better camp standards, and enable caretakers to address specific concerns. While many animal welfare tools exist, none have been designed to consider specific environments and management practices faced by elephants living and working in tourist camps., Methods: Using direct observations and interviews, the Elephant Welfare Assessment Tool (EWAT) was developed for tourist camp elephants using the Five Domains Model as a framework. Measures were selected based on peer-reviewed literature, existing standards and guidelines, and opinions from animal welfare experts working with zoo and tourist camp elephants. The EWAT differs from existing tools by including criteria on work activities and restraint methods ( e.g ., chaining and ankus use), factors common in Asia but not often encountered by western zoo elephants. Measures were scored using a 0-2 Likert Scale. The tool was tested in Thailand and determined by calculating a content validity index (CVI) and conducting inter-rater and test-retest reliability tests., Results: The initial tool included 18 animal-based and 21 resource-based measures across four domains: Nutrition ( n = 5), Environment ( n = 14), Health ( n = 10), and Behavior and Mental State ( n = 10). Index scores of content validity (CVI) (Item CVI (0.83), Scale CVI/Average (0.98), and Scale CVI/Universal (0.89)) were high. Measures scoring less than 0.83 were removed: the opportunity to mate, the mahout-elephant relationship, and mahout job satisfaction. The final tool consisted of 42 questions related to 36 measures, including 18 animal-based and 18 resource-based measures within the Nutrition ( n = 5), Environment ( n = 11), Health ( n = 10), and Behavior and Mental State ( n = 10) domains. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for inter-rater reliability (0.78-0.90, p < 0.05) and test-retest (0.77-0.91, p < 0.05) analyses conducted at two camps showed good agreement., Conclusions: This new assessment tool (EWAT) is a context-specific, holistic method designed to offer a practical means of conducting individual and institutional-level assessments of elephant welfare in tourist camps. It is based on the Five Domains Model using reliable and validated animal- and resource-based measures, data collection through direct observation and interviews, and a numerical scoring system. The tool includes several criteria applicable to tourist rather than zoo venues to make it more relevant to the challenges faced by working elephants in Asia., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© 2024 Ghimire et al.)

Background and Aim: Filarial infections can significantly impact the health of both humans and animals. In elephants, filariasis has been associated with cutaneous dermatitis and skin nodules. However, molecular evidence for such infections is limited in Thailand. This study aimed to identify the morphological and molecular characteristics of microfilaria in captive Asian elephants in Thailand. Materials and Methods: Whole blood collected from the ear vein of 129 captive Asian elephants was hematologically analyzed, and the blood parasites were evaluated using three standard techniques: The microcapillary test, thin blood smears, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: Conventional PCR revealed that approximately 17% (22/129) of the sampled elephants were positive for microfilaria. Microscopy revealed that microfilariae are large, unsheathed, with extended nuclei, a short headspace, and a curved tail tapering at the end. Results of internal transcribed spacer region analysis show that the elephant microfilariae are closely related to Onchocerca spp. All of the elephants positive for microfilaria presented with neither skin lesion nor anemic signs. Microfilaria infection was not associated with age; however, microfilariae were more likely to be detected in male elephants due to differences in management systems. Conclusion: This is the first study to provide both morphological and molecular evidence of microfilaria in Thai elephants. There is an urgent need to investigate the long-term and large-scale effects of microfilaria on the health of elephants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community-Based Tourism (CBT) offers local residents opportunities to manage local tourism resources while sustaining their lifestyle at the same time. The research objective of the study was to explore the process and experience of communities in Northern Thailand which are known as elephant habitats, how these communities strive for stimulating the local economy without jeopardizing the way of life. The study was qualitative in nature. Qualitative data collection methods such as field observations and in-depth interviews were employed. The qualitative data were further analyzed with thematic analysis. In practicing CBT, the findings identified positive factors (Establishment of Elephant Camps), negative factors (Waste from Tourism Activity and Effects of Global Crisis on Employment and Local Income), and suggestions (Waste and Environment Management). The study found that the communities took pride in their cultural as well as natural resources and they are willing to commercialize these resources to a certain degree, i.e. founding elephant themed facilities, as has evidently been indicated. Consequently, as many issues factor into the practice of CBT, the study concluded that community participation and government support should have played a crucial role in maintaining new balance of overall local lifestyle sustainability and commercialization during and after the pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. The populations of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) have increased recently after a period of worldwide decline in protected areas. It is important to understand the dynamics and distribution of the remaining populations to ensure their conservation and prevent human-elephant conflicts. Methods. We monitored the population distribution of elephants between 2016 and 2019 in the Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. We set one hundred fortynine camera trap locations; cameras recorded 38,834 photos over 6,896 trap nights. Elephants were captured in 4,319 photographs. The maximum entropy modeling software MaxEntwas used to identify elephants’ habitat preferences within 49 of the 149 total camera trap locations according to five environmental factors. Results. One hundred fourteen elephants were identified. We identified 30 adult males, 43 adult females, 14 sub-adult males, nine sub-adult females, 11 juveniles, and seven calves. The age structure ratio based on adult femaleswas 0.7:1:0.3:0.2:0.3:0.2, and the ratio of reproductive ability between adult females, juveniles, and calves was 1:0.2:0.1. A suitable elephant habitat was determined to be 1,288.9 km2 using Area Under the Curve (AUC). An AUC = 0.061 indicated good performance. Our model classified habitat preferences associated with elevation, forests, salt licks, human activity, and slope. Conclusions. According to our probability map this sanctuary can provide a suitable habitat for elephants. Our results indicate that effective management practices can protect wild Asian elephants in the region and reduce conflict between humans and elephants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The numerical dominance of women within the Thai population in Belgium raises the question of how gender, as a category of difference and as a norm, influences Thai women's decision to enter in a 'mixed' marriage, to migrate, and to 'do family' in their transnational social spaces. Drawing from a qualitative study of Thai women in 'mixed' couples in Belgium from 2012 to 2015, this article addresses this question using as conceptual points of departure the metaphor 'men are butterflies, women are hindlimbs of an elephant'. It unveils how gendered ideologies in Thailand and in Belgium intersect and shape Thai women's subjectivity and agency. On the one hand, the 'men are butterflies' metaphor reflects the gendered double standard of sexual morality in Thailand and suggests explanations for Thai women's marriage with Belgian men, for their migration to Belgium, and for the break-up, in some cases, of their mixed marriage. On the other hand, the saying 'women are hindlimbs of an elephant' uncovers Thai women's contributions to their families, societies, and nations, as well as the way they cope with the overlapping social expectations interacting on them as daughters, mothers, and citizens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) is a serious disease, threatening the life of young elephants. Many elephants have been infected with no clinical signs and may serve as carriers spreading this disease. It is important to monitor the disease through clinical signs and molecular diagnosis. In this study we investigated the occurrence of EEHV and the efficiency of different techniques used to monitor EEHV infection in various samples and populations of Asian elephants. Materials and Methods: Blood and trunk swabs were collected from live elephants, while visceral organs (lung, digestive tract, spleen, lymph nodes, and kidney) were collected from dead elephants. EEHV was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in whole blood, trunk swabs, and visceral organs as samples, while elephant anti-EEHV immunoglobulin G (IgG) in serum was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A total of 162 samples were analyzed in this study: 129 from healthy, 26 from dead, and 7 from sick elephants. Results: The present study showed that the overall incidence of EEHV was 40.1% (n=65/162). Approximately 46.2% (n=12/26) and 85.7% (n=6/7) of dead and sick elephants were positive for EEHV by PCR, respectively. All sick elephants that were young and affected by EEHV clinical disease tested negative for the IgG antibody ELISA, suggesting primary EEHV infection in this group. In addition, 2.3% (n=3/129) of subclinical infections were detected using PCR, and trunk swab samples showed slightly higher sensitivity (5.3%, n=2/38) to detect EEHV than whole blood (1.2%, n=1/84). As many as, 48.4% (n=44/91) of healthy elephants were EEHV seropositive (ELISA-positive), suggesting that many elephants in Thailand had previously been infected. Overall, 30% of dead wild elephants had been infected with EEHV (n=3/10). Moreover, statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in the EEHV detection rate between different age groups or sexes (p>0.05). Conclusion: PCR is better than ELISA to detect EEHV active infection in dead/sick elephants and to monitor EEHV in young elephants. ELISA is suitable for detecting previous EEHV infection and carriers, particularly adults. Theoretically, we could use both PCR and ELISA to increase the sensitivity of testing, along with observing abnormal behavior to efficiently monitor this disease. Identification of EEHV carriers within elephant populations is important to prevent transmission to healthy individuals, especially young elephants with high mortality from EEHV. This is the first report from Thailand regarding EEHV infection in wild elephants, showing the importance of preventing disease transmission between captive and wild elephants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reputation is a key component in social interactions of group-living animals and appears to play a role in the establishment of cooperation. Animals can form a reputation of an individual by directly interacting with them or by observing them interact with a third party, i.e., eavesdropping. Elephants are an interesting taxon in which to investigate eavesdropping as they are highly cooperative, large-brained, long-lived terrestrial mammals with a complex social organisation. The aim of this study was to investigate whether captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) could form reputations of humans through indirect and/or direct experience in two different paradigms: (1) a cooperative string-pulling task and (2) a scenario requiring begging. Fourteen captive Asian elephants in Thailand participated in an experimental procedure that consisted of three parts: baseline, observation, and testing. In the observation phase, the subject saw a conspecific interact with two people—one cooperative/generous and one non-cooperative/selfish. The observer could then choose which person to approach in the test phase. The elephants were tested in a second session 2–5 days later. We found no support for the hypothesis that elephants can form reputations of humans through indirect or direct experience, but these results may be due to challenges with experimental design rather than a lack of capacity. We discuss how the results may be due to a potential lack of ecological validity in this study and the difficulty of assessing motivation and attentiveness in elephants. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of designing future experiments that account for the elephants' use of multimodal sensory information in their decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Karen villages in northern Thailand, humans often coexist with captive wild Asian elephants, in what can be described as a multispecies culture. A variety of ethnographic data is presented here as evidence of this culture, including an elephant origin story, rituals performed throughout elephant lives, and associated beliefs and practices. Together these rituals and beliefs mediate and define the human-elephant relationship. This relationship exists not only on physical, intellectual and emotional levels, but also within the spiritual worldview of Karen people. In this worldview, elephants are entangled in the same complex relations with spirits, both within their bodies and within the landscape in which they live, that influence Karen human lives. The shared life between humans, elephants and spirits can be understood as a form of multispecies culture resulting from a long process of cultural co-evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) infection is one of the most common diseases in young elephants, causing severe fatal hemorrhagic disease. Subclinical infection was previously described; however, information about the factors associated with virus shedding and reactivation were scarce. To identify the biological and environmental factors related with EEHV detection, blood and oral swab samples were collected from nine captive Asian elephants in Thailand for one year and tested for EEHV presence using real-time PCR. Data including hematological values, management, environmental temperature, and serum cortisol levels were also recorded and analyzed. Results showed that the viral detection frequency ranged from 0-25%. The highest detection frequency was found in the two youngest elephants, aged less than 15 years. Three types of viruses, EEHV1, EEHV4, and EEHV5, were found in this study, which also detected mixed infection in five elephants. Additionally, the study found that sample type, changes in hematological values, management and health issues, and serum cortisol levels were not associated with herpesvirus detection in the elephants. However, EEHV detection percentage was significantly increased in the summer (mid-Feb to mid-May), possibly due to body fitness reduction from food source limitation and low nutrient content. To obtain a broad aspect of EEHV management, long-term EEHV monitoring is highly recommended in every captive elephant herd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Brucellosis is considered as an important zoonotic disease caused by various strains of Brucella in numerous host species. Although brucellosis has been reported in almost animal species, the relevance of brucellosis infection and diagnostic technique in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) has been limited. The present serological investigation aimed to investigate the antibody response to Brucella abortus in captive Asian elephants in North Thailand. Moreover, further serological survey was also conducted to detect the antibody response to Brucella canis in stray dogs cohabiting the same area as the elephant herd. Materials and Methods: Serum samples were collected from 40 captive Asian elephants and submitted for serological analysis based on B. abortus antigen using Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) in combination with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-tube agglutination test (EDTA-TAT) as a supplementary test and by commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA). In addition, serum samples were also obtained from 16 stray dogs that live nearby the elephant-raising area and were tested using commercial Dot-ELISA based on B. canis antigen. Results: Serological analysis in captive Asian elephants showed 100% seronegative (40/40) from all serological tests response to B. abortus. For stray dogs, 12.5% (2/16) had a low positive reaction response to B. canis. Conclusion: The serological survey for brucellosis in Asian elephant was adapted and applied using RBPT, EDTA-TAT, and iELISA in the present study. For future evaluation, we recommended the use of a combination of serological tests with validation together with comparing by direct detection such as bacterial isolation to provide an appropriate brucellosis surveillance program in Asian elephants. In addition, the surveillance of stray dogs or multispecies habitation should be kept into considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many parts of South and Southeast Asia, rural farmers living at the borders of protected areas frequently encounter Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) raiding their crops and threatening farmers lives and livelihoods. Traditional deterrent methods often have limited success as elephants become habituated or alternate their movement and behavior. While African bees (Apis mellifera scutellate) have been shown to effectively and sustainably deter African elephants (Loxodonta africana) little is known about their Asian counterparts. We conducted two experiments to estimate the effectiveness of bees as an Asian elephant deterrent method. We analyzed the behavioral reaction of seven captive Asian elephants when confronted with a fence of A. mellifera hives blocking their way to a desired source of food. In addition, we explored the defensive reaction of five A. cerana hives and six A. mellifera hives to an artificial disturbance during both day and night time. The elephants crossed the beehive fence in 51% of the cases, the probability of crossing increased over time and the number of exposures had a significant effect on an elephant's crossing probability, indicating that elephants became habituated to the presence of the beehive fence. In the bee experiment, only one out of five A. cerana hives and one out of six A. mellifera hives reacted to the disturbance during the daytime, while during nighttime, none of them reacted defensively after being disturbed. We, therefore, conclude that neither A. mellifera nor A. cerana bees are likely to be effective in deterring wild Asian elephants from entering crop fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tourism literature on animal ethics and animal welfare has given scarce consideration to how tourists become enrolled into caring, responsible practices towards animals. The objective of this paper is to contextualize a process of moral development – and specifically the emergence of an ethic of care – through the narratives and experiences of captive elephant volunteer tourists in Thailand. Guided by tenets of ecofeminism and a narrative methodology, our study forefronts how relational experiences prompted compassion and empathy as storied by 12 women volunteers. These volunteer tourists described how they shaped their own moral and ethical patterns through practices of witnessing abuse, questioning moral responsibilities, connecting with elephants, and advocating for improved conditions of captive individuals. As storied by the volunteers, processes of witnessing–questioning–connecting–advocating were deeply transformational, and inspired what we interpret as the development of an ethic of care. The research advances understandings of how intentional, relational engagements that prioritize animal wellbeing have the potential to facilitate among tourists processes of becoming care-full. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elephant tourism in Thailand has developed into an important socio-economic factor after a logging ban initiated in 1989 resulted in thousands of out-of-work elephants. However, the welfare of captive elephants has been a topic of intense debate among tourists, scientists and stakeholders because of the range of working conditions and management practices to which they are exposed. The aim of this paper is to summarize the current state of knowledge on captive elephant welfare, with an emphasis on tourist elephants in Thailand, and highlight information gaps and recommendations for future directions. Tourist-oriented elephant camps could improve the welfare of elephants through better management practices that take into account physiological and psychological needs of individual animals, including meeting social and nutritional requirements, providing good health care, and maintaining adequate facilities. Our goal is to develop science-based guidelines that government agencies can use to develop an enforceable set of practical regulations to ensure good management of tourist elephants in Thailand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) infection is a conservation threat to the endangered Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), causing fatal hemorrhagic disease in juvenile elephants throughout the world, including Thailand. This study revealed a subclinical EEHV1 infection rate of 5.5% in healthy captive Asian elephants in Thailand (n = 362). The virus was detected in all age classes above one year old, in both sexes, and across the country – even in facilities with no history of hemorrhagic disease (EEHV HD). Subclinical EEHV infection in Thailand urgently requires proper health management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We observed the foraging behaviour of five semi-free-roaming elephants in Thailand from December 2016 to October 2019 using all occurrence focal sampling. The elephants consumed 165 species of plants representing 56 families. Dendrocalamus sp. (bamboo), accounted for 40.3% of the elephants’ foraging time. The elephants spent significantly more time browsing than grazing. A significant increase in grazing during the cold season may be attributed to increased access to cultivated fields. Despite this increase, bamboo remained the principle component of the elephants’ diet across seasons. This study provides baseline information regarding foraging by semi-free ranging elephants in a previously undescribed area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following ethical contextualism, this article situates different animal ethical principles, from anthropocentrism to non‐anthropocentrism and relational caring ethics, in Thai social contexts in order to examine whether these principles can lead to a sustainable ethical practice in elephant conservation. The results show that, as non‐anthropocentrism, animal rights ethics are impractical in Thailand because of temporal, spatial, economic and social constraints. As weak anthropocentrism, animal welfare ethics endorse the tourism industry to commercialise the encounter value of elephants by developing elephant camps. Along with animal welfare, relational ecofeminism justifies the emerging model of elephant sanctuaries. Both camp and sanctuary models create a work‐for‐care cycle, in which elephants work to generate economic gains, some of which are in turn used to care for elephants. However, because of evolving social situations, such as potential market competition and poaching of wild elephants, the morality of the work‐for‐care cycle is weak and can be challenged. Nevertheless, sanctuaries offer a direction for a local solution because of their potentially responsible business model. In conclusion, there is not a single set of ethics that can solve all problems and be sustainable in all contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asian elephants have previously demonstrated an ability to follow olfactory cues, but not human-provided social cues like pointing and gazing or orienting to find hidden food (Plotnik et al. in PLoS One 8:e61174, 2013; Anim Behav 88:91–98, 2014). In a study conducted with African elephants, however, elephants were able to follow a combination of these social cues to find food, even when the experimenter's position was counter to the location of the food. The authors of the latter study argued that the differences in the two species' performances might have been due to methodological differences in the study designs (Smet and Byrne in Curr Biol 23(20):2033–2037, 2013). To further investigate the reasons for these potential differences, we partially adapted Smet and Byrne (2013)'s design for a group of Asian elephants in Thailand. In a two-object-choice task in which only one of two buckets was baited with food, we found that, as a group, the elephants did not follow cues provided by an experimenter when she was positioned either equidistant between the buckets or closer to the incorrect bucket when providing the cues. The elephants did, however, follow cues when the experimenter was closer to the correct bucket. In addition, there was individual variability in the elephants' performance within and across experimental conditions. This indicates that in general, for Asian elephants, the pointing and/or gazing cues alone may not be salient enough; local enhancement in the form of the experimenter's position in relation to the food reward may represent a crucial, complementary cue. These results suggest that the variability within and between the species in their performance on these tasks could be due to a number of factors, including methodology, the elephants' experiences with their handlers, ecological differences in how Asian and African elephants use non-visual sensory information to find food in the wild, or some combination of the three. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elephant camps are among the most popular destinations in Thailand for tourists from many countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants. The objectives of this study were to examine relationships between FGM (fecal glucocorticoid metabolite) concentrations and camp management factors (work routine, walking, restraint, rest area, foraging), and to other welfare indicators (stereotypic behaviors, body condition, foot health, and skin wounds). Data were obtained on 84 elephants (18 males and 66 females) from 15 elephant camps over a 1-year period. Elephants were examined every 3 months and assigned a body condition score, foot score, and wound score. Fecal samples were collected twice monthly for FGM analysis. Contrary to some beliefs, elephants in the observation only program where mahouts did not carry an ankus for protection had higher FGM concentrations compared to those at camps that offered riding with a saddle and shows. Elephants that were tethered in the forest at night had lower FGM concentrations compared to elephants that were kept in open areas inside the camps. There was an inverse relationship between FGM concentrations and occurrence of stereotypy, which was not anticipated. Thus, assessing adrenal activity via monitoring of FGM concentrations can provide important information on factors affecting the well-being of elephants. Results suggest that more naturalistic housing conditions and providing opportunities to exercise may be good for elephants under human care in Thailand, and that a no riding, no hook policy does not necessarily guarantee good welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) has been a known cause of death of young elephants in Thailand for over a decade. In this study, we report on the demography, disease characteristics and mortality of 58 elephants with confirmed EEHV hemorrhagic disease between January 2006 and August 2018 using retrospective data subjected to survival analysis. Median age of EEHV presentation was 29 months, and the mortality rate was 68.97% with a median survival time of 36 h. Most EEHV cases occurred in the north of Thailand, the region where most of the country’s captive elephants reside. The hazard ratio analysis identified application of medical procedures and antiviral medications as being significant factors correlated to the risk of death. Our results indicate a need to focus EEHV monitoring efforts on young elephants and to follow current protocols that advise starting treatments before clinical signs appear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated how camp management and tourist activities affect body condition, adrenocortical function, lipid profiles and metabolic status in female tourist elephants. We compared twice monthly serum insulin, glucose, fructosamine, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low density lipoprotein (LDL), high density lipoprotein (HDL), and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations to body condition scores (BCS) at five camps with different management styles (e.g., tourist activities, work type, diet) between the High (November–February) and Low (March–October) tourist seasons. There were significant camp effects on health parameters, with BCS, TC, HDL, insulin and glucose being among the highest, and G:I being the lowest (less heathy) in elephants at an observation camp compared to those at camps where elephants received exercise by providing rides to tourists. Differences between High and Low tourist season months also were found for all measures, except TG and FGM concentrations. Both work time and walking distance were negatively correlated to glucose, fructosamine and insulin, while walking distance was negatively related to FGM concentrations. By contrast, positive associations were found between tourist number and BCS, TG, and insulin, perhaps related to tourists feeding elephants. Quantity of supplementary diet items (e.g., bananas, sugar cane, pumpkin) were positively correlated with FGM concentrations, glucose, fructosamine, and insulin. This study provides evidence that body condition, adrenal activity, metabolic markers, and lipid profiles in captive elephants may be affected by visitor numbers, work activities, and the amount of supplementary foods offered by tourists. Some activities appear to have negative (e.g., feeding), while others (e.g., exercise) may have positive effects on health and welfare. We conclude that camps adopting a more hands-off approach to tourism need to ensure elephants remain healthy by providing environments that encourage activity and rely on more natural diets or foraging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Variation in management across elephant camps likely has differential effects on the well-being of elephants. Methods: This study calculated body condition, foot health and skin wound scores (WSs) for 122 elephants from 15 elephant camps in Chiang Mai province, and examined relationships to management factors using a multi-variable modeling approach. Results: The majority of elephants had high body condition scores (BCS) indicative of being overweight or obese, mild foot problems, but few visible wounds. Females had higher BCSs than males, as did elephants provided a water source at night. Increasing age was associated with higher foot and WSs. Higher WSs were observed in about a quarter of the cases where mahouts carried a hook. Wounds related to saddle riding were rare. Elephants that rested on sand floors at night had a decreased risk of high WSs compared to elephants that rested on compact dirt floors. Discussion: Findings emphasize the need for elephant camps to adjust management activities that negatively affect body condition (e.g., feeding too many sweet treats), foot health (e.g., hard substrates) and wounding (e.g., misuse of equipment) to improve health and welfare of this population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Elephant camps are among the most attractive destinations in Thailand for tourists frommany countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants. Methods: This study surveyed 33 camps with 627 elephants in northern Thailand to quantify the types of management practices and work activities experienced by captive elephants. The survey consisted of an interview with camp owners, and direct observations of camp operations. Results: Data revealed considerable variation in elephant demographics, work activities, elephant care (i.e., housing, restraint, nutrition, health care, and breeding), and mahout management among the camps. In general, older camps (those in existence for >16 years) were involved in more intensive activities, like riding with saddles and shows. By contrast, newer camps provided more one-onone activities for tourists and elephants, and emphasized more intimate, relaxing experiences (e.g., feeding, bathing, walking) than entertainment. A demographic shift also was observed, with elephants 20 years of age and younger having a sex ratio closer to 1:1 compared to elephants in older age categories (1:4.1-1:9.8). Discussion: Shifts in elephant management to less intensive activities were observed, which could have positive implications for elephant welfare. The shifting sex ratio suggests successful captive breeding is resulting in the birth of more males, which could present new welfare challenges in the future, because bulls can be more difficult to manage and socialize, and are more likely to be kept isolated during musth. Ultimately, the goal is to understand how camp activities affect welfare, and to develop science-based guidelines and standards to aid in the management of both male and female elephants used in tourism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies in western zoo elephants have found relationships between body condition and physiological function, and identified mitigating management strategies to optimize health and welfare. A similar methodological approach was used in this study, which evaluated a body condition score (BCS; 1 = thinnest, 5 = fattest) every other month and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations twice monthly in 33 tourist camp elephants in Thailand for a 1-year period to assess seasonal variations, and determine how lipid profiles [total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoproteins (LDL), high density lipoproteins (HDL), triglycerides (TG)] and metabolic parameters [insulin, glucose, fructosamine, glucose to insulin ratio (G:I)] related to measures of body condition and adrenal function. The most prevalent BCS was 3–3.5 (60.6%), with 27.3% at BCS = 4 (overweight) and 12.1% at BCS = 4.5–5 (very overweight); no elephants had a BCS <2. BCSs were higher in rainy and winter seasons compared to summer, with FGM, TG, HDL, LDL, and insulin also higher in the rainy and/or winter seasons (p<0.05). By contrast, TC and glucose were lowest in the rainy season. FGM measures were negatively associated with two environmental factors: temperature and rainfall, but not humidity. Positive correlations were found between BCS and TC, LDL, and HDL, and between FGM and TC, HDL, glucose, and insulin (p<0.05), whereas BCS and FGM were both negatively associated with the G:I (p<0.05). However, there was no relationship between BCS and FGM among the camp elephants. Using BCS and FGM measures as outcome variables in separate regression models, this study found high BCS and elevated FGM concentrations were associated with altered lipid profiles and metabolic status in elephants. Furthermore, more work hours/day was associated with better body condition and health measures. Thus, being overweight and exposed to factors that increase adrenal activity could adversely affect health status, requiring alterations in management for some individuals, whereas exercise appears to have a protective effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop raiding are an increasing concern in wildlife conservation. This study identified the environmental factors that cause wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to enter sub-urban and rural areas and share resources with humans in the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC) in the eastern part of Thailand. The snowball method was used to interview villagers that had crop raiding experienced in seven provinces of the EEC and adjacent provinces in the eastern part of Thailand in 2020, and data from 183 households indicated that crop raiding had increased continuously from 2000 to 2020, especially in Chonburi, Chachoengsao, and Prachinburi provinces, which have seen increases in damaged agricultural areas. MaxEnt analysis showed an increase in incidents of crop raiding, while the elephants distribution area decreased from 9534 km 2 in 2000 to 5199 km 2 in 2010 and 4850 km 2 in 2020. The study area has had land use changes in the low elevations from croplands of cassava and sugar cane to eucalyptus, para rubber, and fruits. These mixed crop plantations provide a pseudo-habitat for wild Asian elephants. The results from this study provide evidence that changes in land use and reduction of suitable habitat are factors that influenced the movement of wild Asian elephants to the rural agricultural areas and increased the incidents of crop raiding., (© 2023. Springer Nature Limited.)

Objective To survey and classify anterior ocular abnormalities in 1478 captive Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus indicus) in six regions of Thailand. Methods Anterior ocular examination was performed in both eyes ( n = 2956) of 1478 elephants selected from the annual health check program involving 2958 animals within six regions of Thailand from January to November 2013. Lesions were described and compared between age and gender. Results A total of 17.83% (527/2956) of examined eyes from 24.97% (369/1478) of examined elephants had anterior ocular abnormalities. The most common lesions in these examined eyes were frothy ocular discharge (5.85%), corneal edema (5.31%), and conjunctivitis (5.18%). In addition, epiphora, phthisis bulbi, other corneal abnormalities, anterior uveitis, and lens abnormalities were noted. Almost all lesions increased in frequency with age ( P < 0.01). Conclusions Regular ophthalmic examination in elephants should be included in their annual health check program. Early detection and treatment of any ocular abnormality may avoid the development of subsequent irreversible ocular pathology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Filarial infection is an important disease in human and animal medicine. Several filarial worms are of importance, especially nematodes in the Onchocercidae. The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is an endangered animal and is very important from several socio-economic and ecological aspects in Thailand. Various parasites can be found in elephants; however, data related to filarial infections in elephants is limited. The objective of this study was to detect filaria in the blood of Asian elephants in Thailand, based on a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. Blood samples were collected from 208 Asian elephants and detected for filaria using PCR, targeting the region of the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2), the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox 1), and the RNA polymerase II large subunit (rbp 1). In total, 4.33% (9 out of 208) of the sampled elephants had Loxodontofilaria spp. DNA with 100% query coverage. In addition, the obtained cox 1 and rbp 1 sequences matched with Loxodontofilaria sp., Onchocerca sp., and Dirofilaria sp. There were no identified risk factors (sex, age, location, and packed cell volume) related to Loxodontofilaria infection in elephants. The analyses of the phylogeny of ITS2 sequences demonstrated that the Loxodotofilaria -positive sequences were closely related to Onchocerca dewittei japonica and Onchocerca dewittei dewittei with 100% query coverage. Notably, the concatenated phylogenetic trees of ITS2 and the cox 1 and rbp 1 genes were closely similar to Loxodontofilaria sp. To describe in detail the genomic DNA of Loxodontofilaria spp., other genes should be additionally studied using a more discriminatory technique, such as DNA barcoding or whole genome sequencing. • The prevalence of microfilaria in Elephas maximus in Thailand was approximately 4%. • Loxodontofilaria ITS2, cox 1, and rbp 1 sequences were revealed in Asian elephant blood samples. • The infection of Loxodontofilaria spp. showed no effect on packed cell volume (PCV). • The phylogenetic analyses of the sequences showed closely related to Onchocerca dewittei japonica and O. dewittei dewittei. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tourism, including nature-based tourism, simultaneously produces and conceals the contradictions of capitalism. This is because it relies on creating attractions, or new sources of accumulation from the very crises it produces. Nature-based tourism is promoted as a ‘win-win’ that can resolve the contradiction between continual economic growth and finite natural resources. This is made possible via a process of neoliberalising nature, which cuts the threads that bind ecosystems together, so that the constituent parts can be transformed into new commodities. To draw out these broad arguments, this paper firstly examines the claims around tourism as ‘green economy’ – which proponents claim can produce environmentally sustainable economic growth – a benefit also associated with nature-based tourism. I also show that this can be regarded as simply the latest version of an existing debate rather than offering a new interpretation. This is explored further via a comparative analysis of how tourism neoliberalises nature at the scales of the individual animal (elephant trekking in Thailand) and the landscape (by global networks of NGOs operating in Madagascar). In the case of neoliberalisation of nature at the individual animal scale, the notion of bodily fix is also important. It is not just the elephants that are primed for commodity capture, it is the emotional experience of close interactions with elephants which is commodified. Such changes reshape societal relations with nature, but in uneven and incomplete ways. This is underlined by a discussion of the case of the Durban Vision Initiative in Madagascar – which reveals how neoliberalisation was incomplete as a result of its encounter with local level materialities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]