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The role of summer session attendance in time-to-degree was studied in a two-phase investigation. In the first phase, a survey was used to collect data from 10 universities on the entering class of 1992 who took a degree in arts and sciences. This cohort was followed to graduation periods of less than 4 years, 4 years, 5, years, 6 years, and more than 6 years. Survey items addressed time to complete bachelor's degree, gender, Scholastic Assessment Test scores, and grade point averages at the time of graduation. In the second phase of the study, telephone interviews were conducted with 33 students at the University of Virginia who graduated in less than 4 years. Findings from both phases show the important role summer session plays in providing opportunities for college students to complete their bachelor's degrees in 4 years. Summer session also plays an essential role in supporting students who wish to graduate in less than 4 years. Attending summer session did not deter academic achievement, and attendance in summer sessions had no gender preference. Financial pressures and the need to save money motivated students who completed their degrees in less than 4 years. The longer the time required for students to complete degrees, the more work and financial aid was needed to cover their expenses. The paper discusses the implications of reducing the time required to complete a degree program. (Contains 21 references.) (SLD)

The writing skills of 71 college seniors were assessed at a medium-sized public university. Blind scoring, a standard scoring guide, and trained graders were used. Curricular writing emphasis was assessed through a syllabus study, yielding a curricular emphasis score. The academic records of these students revealed the number of courses taken in each discipline, and a weighted sum was derived for each student with weighting by the percent of syllabi for courses taken that showed "strong emphasis" in writing in each discipline. Controlling for entry-level skill in writing, writing score and curricular emphasis were highly correlated. Implications for assessment practice are discussed. (SLD)

A course in advanced English as a second language that focused on the writing of formal research papers revealed that even students who had chosen personally interesting topics and were able to organize facts and present them well still had difficulty. They had problems beginning and ending their papers, they approached their topics warily, and they either used very abrupt conclusions or lingered too long. Some suggestions for a better approach are the following: pay more attention to students' specific questions about the paper's length and contents, using a recipe-like assignment; reduce the pressure of the syllabus to allow more time for thinking, research, and organization of a smaller number of papers; provide more practice of research techniques that produce readable, useful research papers; have students choose research topics early in the course and refine them as the course progresses; eliminate oral reports on papers in progress; have some students distribute their papers for group revision each week; examine, in class, the writing contained in some of the sources; have students practice note-taking; use more praise; eliminate all required reading assignments; and limit the papers' bibliographies to five sources. (MSE)

This paper is the third in a series that focuses on the Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act. It reports on a study of what parents know and think about campus safety issues and the Clery Act. During a college's summer orientation program, parents were selected at random from those who passed the checkout table at the end of the program. Responses of 435 parents who also completed a brief questionnaire show that parents' knowledge of the Clery Act and their use of the information contained in the federally mandated report is low. Parent response to crime awareness strategies and administrators who shared this information with them varied by parent educational status and experience with children in college. (SLD)

This background paper is a result of a literature review conducted under Project FORUM that identifies research-based inputs and processes related to student outcomes. It was intended to provide background information for the participants attending the Wingspread Conference on Inputs and Processes in October, 1998. In addition, the report is designed to assist state and local education agencies identify independent variables that should be the focus of systems change in order to positively impact student outcomes. Information is provided regarding selected research findings and information about state practices related to the following educational input factors and educational process factors: (1) certified and qualified staff; (2) vision; (3) leadership; (4) school size; (5) class size; (6) physical and school arrangements; (7) safe and orderly environment; (8) comprehensive, balanced curriculum; (9) systematic, tailored instruction; (10) time; (11) scheduling; (12) grouping; (13) technology; (14) parent, family, and community involvement; (15) instructional climate and school culture; (16) professional development; and (17) school and community-based management. (Contains approximately 300 references.) (CR)

This study examined the potential consequences of reductions in the fiscal support of 4-year public colleges and universities in general and in Virginia in particular from the perspective of academic officers. In 2002, a qualitative case study was initiated in conjunction with the chief academic officers of Virginia's 15 4-year public colleges and universities. The data from interviews, correspondence, and surveys were used to assess the institutional perspective relative to the 2002 General Assembly appropriation reductions and the October 2002 budget cuts. Because the timing of the diminished funding did not correspond with academic planning cycles and other factors, comparative quantitative data reflecting the budget impact will not be available until, at the earliest, the end of academic year 2003-2004. However, early data collection suggests the concerns of academic officers expressed in this study were well founded. Academic officers anticipated that students would experience significant direct and indirect costs associated with Virginia's fiscal crisis, especially reductions in academic support services and larger classes. Fewer faculty available for advising and reductions in services such as library hours were also expected. Institutions were apprehensive about the influence of economic uncertainly and reductions in research support on their ability to retain professors, since faculty evaluations are heavily reliant on research productivity. Academic officers indicated that the public 4-year institutions vary widely in their ability to sustain operations through the current economic crisis. Observations from this study present compelling evidence of potential damage to Virginia's higher education system. Disadvantaged students in particular will be adversely affected by budget cuts. (Contains 3 tables and 50 references.) (SLD)

Many departments of educational administration might be operating disjointed master's degree programs. On one hand, regular faculty members teach foundation courses and research theory. On the other hand, adjunct professors, who make up an "invisible faculty" and commonly work in isolation from the regular faculty and even one another, teach the practical courses in educational administration. This publication reports on an informal study conducted by the American Association of School Administrators that explored the nature of this situation. Surveys were sent to school superintendents, 295 of whom responded. Responses show that these superintendent-adjunct professors commonly teach core courses, such as school finance, school law, educational leadership, and administration. They commonly develop their own course syllabi without guidance from university colleagues. They interact most frequently with fellow superintendents instead of university professors. Because they are already paid through their superintendent jobs, they are not bothered by low adjunct salaries. Their primary motivation for being an adjunct professor includes personal growth, passing on their professional knowledge, and hopes of improving the training of new leaders. Little communication exists between adjunct and regular faculty members, which adjunct faculty members are comfortable with because of a well-developed sense of who and what they are. (RT)

This report is the second in a series that focuses on the Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act. It reports on a study of the effects of the Clery Act on law enforcement on college and university campuses, how institutions are distributing the mandatory reports on campus crime, and whether the Act has had any impact on reducing campus crime. Researchers surveyed 944 senior campus law enforcement officials at institutions covered by the Clery Act. Responses were received from 371 officials, 83% of whom were chiefs of campus police/security. A majority (57%) thought the Act has been effective or very effective in improving the quality of campus crime reporting procedures, and a similar margin credited the Act with improving the quality of campus safety programs. Institutions distributed the Clery mandated reports in a variety of ways, with Internet Web sites and campus mail the most often used methods for campus students and employees, and U.S . mail for commuter students. Seventy percent of respondents reported that campus crime rates have remained relatively constant since the passage of the Clery Act, and 90% of respondents said the Act had no impact on campus crime. However, 53% of respondents believed that providing the campus programs encouraged by the Act increased the confidence students have in their campus police forces. (Contains 4 tables and 16 references.) (SLD)

A federation of alternative schools called New Collaborative Schools (NCS) has been proposed to improve educational outcomes of academically able but low-performing high school students. The NCS model would combine the advantages of high school-college collaborations with the most effective practices for improving the educational experiences of "at-risk" high school students. This report provides background for the NCS model. After discussing what constitutes an at-risk student, the report reviews various types of alternative schools, including alternative classrooms, schools-within-schools, continuation schools, career academies, tech-prep schools, magnet schools, and separate alternative schools. Key elements of successful alternative schools are autonomous small learning environments; increased educational engagement, possibly using a new curriculum and instructional techniques; and strong teacher input into school governance and curriculum. An examination of college-high school collaborations reveals their key attributes to be flexible educational pacing, broader curriculum options, and internships. A review of effective schools finds that common characteristics include a sense of community among students and teachers, a significant change in school curricula, and increased teacher involvement in the setting of curricula as well as other school reforms. Recommendations for the establishment of the NCS include small learning environments, curriculum and instructional reforms appropriate to the target students, ongoing professional development, consistent and constant counseling and monitoring, and frequent evaluation and assessment. An appendix presents features of selected alternative schools. (Contains 70 references.) (TD)

The abstracts in this volume cover the following topics: (1) administration, (2) biomechanics, (3) body composition, (4) curriculum, (5) dance, (6) health, (7) history, (8) leisure, (9) measurement, (10) motor development, (11) motor learning and control, (12) pedagogy, (13) philosophy, (14) physical fitness, (15) physiology, (16) psychology, (17) sociology, and (18) special populations. The name and address of the presenter is included with each abstract. (JD)

Abstracts of papers accepted for presentation in the Research Consortium sessions of the 1988 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance Convention in Kansas City, Missouri, are published in this volume. Abstracts of presentations made in the symposia are presented first, followed by those in the free communication sessions, and finally those in the poster sessions. The presider for each session is listed in the table of contents. The date and time of presentation are listed in the lower left hand corner of each abstract. (Author/JD)

A collection of working papers on English as a second language (ESL) instruction includes: "A Structured Approach to Teaching Composition" (Margery Tegey); "Teaching Writing' to ESL Students: A Process-Based Approach" (Marie Nelson); "When Theory and Intuition Meet: An Approach to Composition Instruction" (Ali A. Aghbar, Kathy Trump); "Shakespeare Made Simple" (Susan English); "The Mainstream English Language Training Project" (Tim Riney); "Play On Words: Teaching Sentence Expansion and Modification by Computer" (Roberta Boss); "Job Satisfaction Among ESL Teachers in Higher Education: A Preliminary Study" (Lois Lanier); and "The Problem with Formal Research Papers" (Dona De Sanctis). (MSE)

This report was prepared to fulfill the need for an information source on basic skills in the armed services. To prepare the report, researchers obtained and reviewed published literature from various document files. Service representatives of the Joint Service Working Group on Literacy/Basic Skills established by the Assistant Secretary of Defense prepared papers describing their service's basic skills programs, ongoing and projected. In addition, site visits were made to training programs. Results of the literature review indicated that for some two hundred years, a debate has taken place among those responsible for military training that focuses on the role of the military in providing basic skills training for undereducated applicants for military service. A representative sample of the major arguments in the debate was compiled. In general, arguments against the teaching of basic skills in the military focus on pointing to the undesirability of permitting the less literate to enter military service, the costs of training the less literate, the use of limited assignments in lieu of basic skills training, and the ineffectiveness of basic skills programs in improving either basic skills or job performance. Those arguing for the teaching of basic skills counter that many less literate personnel perform as well as more highly literate ones, that screening instruments are not adequate to distinguish the inadequate, that avoiding the use of less literate persons in peacetime prevents their acquisition of training experience when mobilization requires their use, that literacy training can be cost effective, and that less literate persons are required to fill slots in a volunteer military service. Research bearing on the debate was examined in three areas: selection and classification, job training, and job performance. (KC)

This document consists of a series of five briefing papers on the state of art education. The first paper, "Multiethnic Art Educators: An Endangered Species," (Esther Page Hill) discusses the problem of diminishing numbers of art educators of African, Hispanic, Asian, and Native American ethnic groups even as the number of minority students grows. The second paper, "New Paradigms Needed for Changing Times" (Edith Curtice Johnson) suggests that in seeking to effectively restructure and reform national art curricula and to establish delivery systems appropriate to the needs of students in the future, art educators must expand their awareness of global trends that will affect planning processes and potential for success. The third paper, "The 'Melting Pot' Myth," (Lois Petrovich-Mwaniki) argues that art education that incorporates issues of diversity in a culturally sensitive and anthropological approach will challenge and reshape the attitudes students and teachers have toward each other, diverse cultural groups, and even the education process itself. With greater understanding of the diverse cultural groups comprising this and other countries, students and teachers can better appreciate how cultures emerge, change, and affect each other and the individual. The fourth paper, "Achieving High Standards in Art Education," (Jeanne Rollins) describes the current activities on standards in art education including master teacher standards, student learning standards, assessment standards, and delivery or "opportunity to learn" standards. The final article,"Art for the Student's Sake" (Dan DeFoor) suggests that the nature of art is individual self expression, but that visual art gives relevance to the total educational program. (DK)

A multiparameter, programmable model was developed to examine the interactive influence of certain parameters on the probability of deciding that an examinee had attained a specified degree of mastery. It was applied within the simulated context of performance testing of military trainees. These parameters included: (1) the number of assumed mastery states--master, nonmaster, and perhaps intermediate (likely to soon achieve mastery); (2) the prior distribution of scores from similar examinee groups; and (3) the number of test trials or items administered. The results of several simulations showed that the degree of confidence that a decisionmaker can have about the testee's mastery is markedly affected by the values for the three parameters, and the effects of their combination. Using the Bayesian model, test length and costs could be reduced--as long as the prior information was accurate and valid for the particular group of examinees. Results of the simulation also showed that a test may be too short to be of decision-making value. (Author/GDC)

Alternative mathematical models for scoring and decision making with criterion referenced tests are described, especially as they concern appropriate test length and methods of establishing statistically valid cutting scores. Several of these approaches are reviewed and compared on formal-analytic and empirical grounds: (1) Block's approach to setting mastery standards, involving student performance and academic requirements; (2) Crehan's classification, comparing scores of students who have and who have not completed training; (3) the probabilistic models of Macready, Dayton, and Emrick, which assume an equal proportion of masters and nonmasters; (4) the binomial distribution model, which allows for partial acquisition of proficiency; (5) the Bayesian model, which considers prior experience; (6) Rasch's one-parameter logistic model, which yields person-free test calibrations and item-free person measurements; and (7) the regression approach of classical test theory, which enables the estimation of true scores to be made from observed scores. Examples of these approaches are given, as well as their advantages, disadvantages, and ambiguities. (GDC)

Peer evaluation research was reviewed from three major perspectives--validity, methodology, and situational factors. Most of the studies focused on either concurrent or predicitve validity in a military training situation. Evaluation criteria included leadership potential, promotion potential, personality traits, and supervisory skills. Substantial validity was generally found, with correlation coefficients in the .30 to .50 range. Reliability and validity of different evaluation methods (rating, ranking, nominations, and combinations of these techniques) did not vary substantially. Evaluation methods did, however, differ in feasibility and acceptability, the latter largely a function of familiarity with the evaluation procedure and perceived difficulty. Situational factors have documented and potential effects which developers and users of peer evaluation should recognize. These factors include group size, informal group structure, demographic characteristics, group boundaries, hierarchical characteristics, friendship, length of association, and types of interaction. Although many issues surrounding peer evaluation or associate evaluation remain unresolved, evidence suggests they are a powerful tool in discriminating complex human behavior. (Author/CP)

Four different methods for inputting enemy situation data--(1) typing, (2) typing with error correction, (3) menus (choosing appropriate entry from a list), and (4) typing with autocompletion and an English option--were compared for speed, accuracy, and ease of use. Thirty-two enlisted men and women, none of whom had used the inputting techniques being studied, were randomly assigned to the four method groups. The subjects acted as intelligence staff entering information about the enemy into a computerized data base. Subjects received free text messages describing enemy actions, extracted necessary information, and entered the appropriate codes into a variation of the Enemy Situation Data Add (ESDA) format of the TOS system. Results indicated that menus were more error free than the other inputting methods; also, menus were popular among the subjects and did not have higher mean times than the other inputting methods. To maximize the benefits of the menus, special attention should be given to the design of an operational menu-based inputting system, particularly with respect to length, display speed, and item selection. Spelling correctors or autocompletion should be considered only for experienced users and in operational settings that specifically require such aids. (CMV)

This volume, one in a series on modern language testing, collects four essays dealing with current approaches to lanquage testing. The introduction traces the development of language testing theory and examines the role of linguistics in this area. "The Psycholinguistic Basis," by E. Ingram, discusses some interpretations of the term "psycholinguistics" and relates them to traditional and recent language testing practices. "Psychometric Considerations in Language Testing," by J.L.D. Clark, discusses aspects of psychometric practice with regard to three broad categories of purpose within the area of language testing: (1) prognostic testing, (2) diagnostic testing, and (3) proficiency testing. "The Sociolinguistic Foundations of Language Testing," by J.A. Fishman and R.L. Cooper, illustrates the usefulness of a sociolinguistic approach and provides justification for it by the construction of language assessment procedures. "Pragmatics and Language Testing," by J.W. Oller, Jr., discusses in historical perspective the major concepts of pragmatics and relates them to language testing. (AM)

At the middle school level, school climate, curriculum, instructional strategies, and the availability of positive adult role models all affect student performance. This study sought to determine student perceptions of discipline effectiveness, teaching strategies, and school climate. Early adolescents (N=220) between the ages of 11 and 16 in 20 middle schools were interviewed. The schools were representative of large, urban, suburban, and rural settings. Results showed a more positive picture of student perceptions of their schools than might have been expected. When asked to describe their schools, 53 percent gave positive comments, 36 percent gave negative comments, and 11 percent gave noncommital comments. Every student mentioned at least once that they would like someone to listen to them. For the most part the students who were interviewed were gregarious and talkative and needed more time to socialize than the school day allowed. Fourteen recommendations are given for middle school administrators to use in developing programs for students who cause repeated classroom disturbances and are at risk of alienating themselves from the schooling process. These recommendations range from designing an active advisory program and comprehensive curriculum to helping teachers plan for effective instruction. (ABL)

This study used a questionnaire designed to assess teachers' and administrators' perceptions of teaching performance and their perceptions of the importance of various teaching knowledges and skills. The purpose of the study was to suggest how survey research can be used to examine teachers' perceptions of their performance in context and in comparison to their own values and to the values of administrators, as well as in comparison to administrators' assessments of teacher performance. Making such comparisons is seen as one way to identify what needs exist for instructional support in a particular district or school. Comparing teaching performance and values makes it possible to identify areas of agreement and discrepancy on what teaching performance is and what is valued by the school administration. Findings of the survey revealed that in some cases, things that teachers felt they did well were in skill areas that were not highly valued by administrators. A discussion is presented on how such areas of discrepancy can serve as focal points for the formulation of staff development policies and programs. (JD)

A major reason for the paucity of usable data on the contributions and effectiveness of community colleges is that the definitions on which the data are based are imprecise. Colleges' contributions might be better understood if their functions were reconceptualized. The collegiate dimension of community colleges (i.e, that portion of the curriculum stemming from the liberal arts and the services designed to promote transfer) does not resemble the contemplative, text-centered courses that are held as the university ideal, but instead is oriented towards general education. While the collegiate dimension of the community college serves the general education function well, it is inappropriate to characterize this curriculum as a transfer program. The fact that a class carries transfer credit is an artifact of college accreditation, staffing, and financing, having little to do with the perceptions, goals, or intentions of the students who are enrolled. To differentiate curriculum content from student intent, the curriculum could be characterized as comprising liberal arts (i.e., science, social science, humanities, and fine and performing arts) and skills (i.e., basic, recreational, occupational) courses. Students' intentions can be determined by asking the students to indicate whether they are attending college at this time to: (1) prepare for transfer to a four-year college or university; (2) gain skills necessary to enter a new occupation; (3) gain skills necessary to retrain, remain current, or advance in a current occupation; or (4) satisfy a personal interest. By separating questions of curriculum content from student intent, both may be assessed more accurately. (LAL)

Much research has been conducted regarding the effectiveness and efficiency of cooperative learning on groups of students. Many student may think they like cooperative learning. Such students, however, may really prefer traditional learning in that same subject if they were taught by the same instructor. Students that have not been taught by the same instructor in that same subject can't accurately determine which method best suits their needs. Therefore, the focus of this study was to give one group of 19 ninth-grade biology students in the Alexandria City, Virginia school district one semester using and promoting only cooperative exercises followed by one semester using and promoting only traditional exercises. The same instructor was used throughout this study. The cooperative learning model consisted of a 3-day cycle of a group quiz, group competition, followed by an individual test. Labs and other activities were also implemented in a cooperative setting. The traditional routine used was teacher lecture, class worksheets, followed by a test. Labs and video presentations were given following the test. An introduction, the methodology, the statistical analysis, and a summary are included. The name of the textbook used in the study, examples of short term and long term achievement tests, and the short term and long term achievement data are appended. (KR)