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This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Liparis loeselii (L.) Rich. (Fen Orchid) that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of Britain and Ireland: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, and history and conservation.Liparis loeselii is a small terrestrial orchid that has a circumboreal distribution and is widespread in Europe and North America. Despite its wide distribution, the species is locally rare and has declined considerably in most of its range. In Britain, the species has a disjunct distribution and is now known to occur consistently at only six sites in eastern England and three in south Wales. It is absent from Ireland. Its most characteristic habitats in Britain are inland fens and coastal dune slacks, but outside Britain it can also be found in wet meadows, marshes, forested seep springs, at lake borders or on mats of floating peat.Populations of Liparis loeselii in dune slacks tend to be short‐lived, and can rapidly increase in size or decrease and disappear as environmental conditions change. The species does not tolerate high nutrient concentrations or low pH. It is susceptible to drought, which reduces seed germination, seedling recruitment and adult survival. Heavy predation by rabbits and rodents has been observed under drought conditions.Liparis loeselii reproduces both by sexual reproduction, and by vegetative propagation through the production of pseudobulbs. Although flowers are accessible to insects, entomophilous pollination is unusual, and most sexual reproduction is the result of selfing. Fruits ripen late in the growing season (mid‐October) and the dust‐like seeds are dispersed during winter by wind and water. Germination occurs during the following growing season and is supported by a wide variety of mycorrhizal fungi.Since the late 19th century Liparis loeselii has declined considerably in Britain and elsewhere in Europe, primarily due to habitat destruction and loss, natural succession, and habitat desiccation due to drainage. As a result, the species has been listed as endangered in the Bern Convention and the European Habitat Directive (92/43/EEC) and is the focus of intensive conservation efforts in many countries. Restoration of habitat by mowing, extensive grazing and peat removal, and the creation of new habitat by dune slack formation in dune systems and peat removal in fens may prolong population persistence and promote establishment of new populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the distribution ranges and abundance of many plant species have declined dramatically in recent decades, detailed analysis of these changes and their cause have only become possible following the publication of second- and third-generation national distribution atlases. Decline can now be compared both between species and in different parts of species' ranges. We extracted data from distribution atlases to compare range persistence of 736 plant species common to both the UK and Estonia between survey periods encompassing almost the same years (1969 and 1999 in the UK and 1970 and 2004 in Estonia). We determined which traits were most closely associated with variation in species persistence, whether these were the same in each country, and the extent to which they explained differences in persistence between the countries. Mean range size declined less in Estonia than in the UK (24.3% vs. 30.3%). One-third of species in Estonia (239) maintained >90% of their distribution range compared with one-fifth (141) in the UK. In Estonia, 99 species lost >50% of their range compared with 127 species in the UK. Persistence was very positively related to original range in both countries. Major differences in species persistence between the studied countries were primarily determined by biogeographic (affiliation to floristic element) and ecoevolutionary (plant strategy) factors. In contrast, within-country persistence was most strongly determined by tolerance of anthropogenic activities. Decline of species in the families Orchidaceae and Potamogetonaceae was significantly greater in the UK than in Estonia. Almost all of the 736 common and native European plant species in our study are currently declining in their range due to pressure from anthropogenic activities. Those species with low tolerance of human activity, with biotic pollination vectors and in the families referred to above are the most vulnerable, especially where human population density is high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The persistence of bovine TB (bTB) in various countries throughout the world is enhanced by the existence of wildlife hosts for the infection. In Britain and Ireland, the principal wildlife host for bTB is the badger (Meles meles). The objective of our study was to examine the dynamics of bTB in badgers in relation to both badger-derived infection from within the population and externally-derived, trickle-type, infection, such as could occur from other species or environmental sources, using a spatial stochastic simulation model. Results: The presence of external sources of infection can increase mean prevalence and reduce the threshold group size for disease persistence. Above the threshold equilibrium group size of 6-8 individuals predicted by the model for bTB persistence in badgers based on internal infection alone, external sources of infection have relatively little impact on the persistence or level of disease. However, within a critical range of group sizes just below this threshold level, external infection becomes much more important in determining disease dynamics. Within this critical range, external infection increases the ratio of intra- to inter-group infections due to the greater probability of external infections entering fully-susceptible groups. The effect is to enable bTB persistence and increase bTB prevalence in badger populations which would not be able to maintain bTB based on internal infection alone. Conclusions: External sources of bTB infection can contribute to the persistence of bTB in badger populations. In high-density badger populations, internal badger-derived infections occur at a sufficient rate that the additional effect of external sources in exacerbating disease is minimal. However, in lower-density populations, external sources of infection are much more important in enhancing bTB prevalence and persistence. In such circumstances, it is particularly important that control strategies to reduce bTB in badgers include efforts to minimise such external sources of infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke) is a physically and economically devastating parasitic trematode whose rise in recent years has been attributed to climate change. Climate has an impact on the free-living stages of the parasite and its intermediate host Lymnaea truncatula, with the interactions between rainfall and temperature having the greatest influence on transmission efficacy. There have been a number of short term climate driven forecasts developed to predict the following season's infection risk, with the Ollerenshaw index being the most widely used. Through the synthesis of a modified Ollerenshaw index with the UKCP09 fine scale climate projection data we have developed long term seasonal risk forecasts up to 2070 at a 25 km square resolution. Additionally UKCIP gridded datasets at 5 km square resolution from 1970-2006 were used to highlight the climate-driven increase to date. The maps show unprecedented levels of future fasciolosis risk in parts of the UK, with risk of serious epidemics in Wales by 2050. The seasonal risk maps demonstrate the possible change in the timing of disease outbreaks due to increased risk from overwintering larvae. Despite an overall long term increase in all regions of the UK, spatio-temporal variation in risk levels is expected. Infection risk will reduce in some areas and fluctuate greatly in others with a predicted decrease in summer infection for parts of the UK due to restricted water availability. This forecast is the first approximation of the potential impacts of climate change on fasciolosis risk in the UK. It can be used as a basis for indicating where active disease surveillance should be targeted and where the development of improved mitigation or adaptation measures is likely to bring the greatest benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The management of many pathogens, which are of concern to humans and their livestock, is complicated by the pathogens' ability to cross-infect multiple host species, including wildlife. This has major implications for the management of such diseases, since the dynamics of infection are dependent on the rates of both intra- and inter-specific transmission. However, the difficulty of studying transmission networks in free-living populations means that the relative opportunities for intra- versus inter-specific disease transmission have not previously been demonstrated empirically within any wildlife-livestock disease system. Methodology/Principal Findings: Using recently-developed proximity data loggers, we quantify both intra-and interspecific contacts in a wildlife-livestock disease system, using bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in badgers and cattle in the UK as our example. We assess the connectedness of individuals within the networks in order to identify whether there are certain 'high-risk' individuals or groups of individuals for disease transmission within and between species. Our results show that contact patterns in both badger and cattle populations vary widely, both between individuals and over time. We recorded only infrequent interactions between badger social groups, although all badgers fitted with data loggers were involved in these inter-group contacts. Contacts between badgers and cattle occurred more frequently than contacts between different badger groups. Moreover, these inter-specific contacts involved those individual cows, which were highly connected within the cattle herd. Conclusions/Significance: This work represents the first continuous time record of wildlife-host contacts for any free-living wildlife-livestock disease system. The results highlight the existence of specific individuals with relatively high contact rates in both livestock and wildlife populations, which have the potential to act as hubs in the spread of disease through complex contact networks. Targeting testing or preventive measures at high-contact groups and individuals within livestock populations would enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of disease management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Orchis mascula (L.) L. (early purple orchid) relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the framework of the Biological Flora of the British Isles: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characteristics, herbivores and disease, history and conservation. 2. Orchis mascula is a native herb of the British flora. It is mostly found in woodland, copses, grasslands and open pastures, mostly on neutral or base-rich soils. It can also occur in hedgerows, scrub, on roadsides and railway banks, in grikes on limestone pavement and on moist cliff ledges. It is absent from very acid or very wet sites. It tolerates a sparse to moderately dense canopy, but it does not flower in deep shade. 3. Orchis mascula is a non-bulbous geophyte with little or no capacity for vegetative spread. The main perennating organ is a tuber (strictly a rootstem tuber). In most years the tuber generates a rosette of expanded leaves, and, at the end of every year of the plant's life, the tuber is replaced by at least one new tuber. Dormancy, the failure of above-ground parts to appear in a growing season, and the subsequent reappearance of full-sized photosynthetic plants in subsequent seasons, has been observed, but does not last longer than 1 year. The species is long-lived: it takes at least 4 years from first appearance above-ground to achieve flowering for the first time. The maximum recorded lifetime after first appearance is 13 years. 4. Orchis mascula is not autogamous and pollinators are necessary for successful pollination and fruit set. Flowers are nectarless, and pollinated by deceit, mainly by bumblebees and solitary bees. Natural levels of fruit set are usually < 20%. Hand-pollination can increase fruit set to. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Direct interactions between individuals play an important part in the sociality of group-living animals, their mating system and disease transmission. Here, we devise a methodology to quantify relative rates of proximity interaction from radio-tracking data and highlight potential asymmetries within the contact network of a moderate-density badger population in the north-east of England. 2. We analysed radio-tracking data from four contiguous social groups, collected over a 3-year period. Dynamic interaction analysis of badger dyads was used to assess the movement of individuals in relation to the movement of others, both within and between social groups. Dyads were assessed with regard to season, sex, age and sett use pattern of the badgers involved. 3. Intragroup separation distances were significantly shorter than intergroup separation distances, and interactions between groups were rare. Within groups, individuals interacted with each other more often than expected, and interaction patterns varied significantly with season and sett use pattern. Non-mover dyads (using the main sett for day-resting on > 50% of occasions) interacted more frequently than mover dyads (using an outlier sett for day-resting on > 50% of occasions) or mover–non-mover dyads. Interactions between group members occurred most frequently in winter. 4. Of close intragroup interactions (< 50 m separation distance), 88·6% were associated with a main sett and only 4·4% with outlier setts. Non-mover dyads and non-mover–mover dyads interacted significantly more often at the main sett than mover-only dyads. These results highlight the importance of the main sett to badger sociality and support the suggestion that badger social groups are comprised of different subgroups, in our case based on differential sett use patterns. 5. Asymmetries in contact structure within a population will affect the way in which diseases are transmitted through a social network. Assessment of these networks is essential for understanding the persistence and spread of disease within populations which do not mix freely or which exhibit heterogeneities in their spatial or social behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Paratuberculosis ( Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis; Map) is a widespread and difficult disease to control in livestock populations and also has possible links to Crohn's disease in humans. Rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus) have been identified recently as the key wildlife species in terms of paratuberculosis transmission to the wider host community. Here, we test the hypothesis that Map can persist in rabbit populations for extended periods of time in the absence of any external source of infection. 2. A spatially explicit stochastic simulation model of a generic host–disease interaction was developed to quantify the interplay between vertical and horizontal routes of transmission needed for the persistence of Map in rabbit populations and to test the hypothesis. The model was parameterized based on empirical studies on rabbit population dynamics and on rabbit-to-rabbit routes of Map transmission. 3. Predictions from the model suggest that any disease with susceptible–infected (SI) dynamics without disease-induced mortality can persist within a rabbit population in the absence of vertical transmission, providing the horizontal transmission coefficient, β, is greater than approximately 0·012. The inclusion of any vertical transmission reduces the value of β that is necessary for infection to persist. 4. Paratuberculosis persists in rabbit populations at all values of the horizontal and vertical transmission parameters in the range estimated from the field data and in many cases at all values within 95% confidence intervals around this range. The persistence of Map infection in rabbit populations in the absence of external sources of infection suggests that they may act as a reservoir of infection for sympatric livestock. 5. Synthesis and applications. Our findings, in combination with the ubiquitous distribution of rabbits in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, suggests that if Map becomes established in rabbit populations they are likely to provide widespread and persistent environmental distributions of infection and thus disease risk to livestock and potentially humans. Where local rabbit populations are infected they should be included in any future paratuberculosis control strategies. Because eradication of rabbits is often not a realistic option, control strategies should include reducing interspecific transmission risk from rabbits to livestock via the faecal–oral route. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports developments on the success of the "Journal of Ecology," the official publication of the British Ecological Society in Great Britain. The Impact Factor of the "Journal of Ecology" has increased by about 26 percent between 2004 and 2005. Jian-Ming Deng has awarded the 2006 John L. Harper Young Investigator's Prize for his paper about the relationship of plant mass-density and moisture gradient that was published in the journal. Meran Owen has been appointed as managing editor for the journal.

Abstract: National databases were interrogated to analyse and compare proportional alterations in the distribution ranges of orchid species between two surveys in the UK (surveys completed in 1969 and 1999) and in Estonia (surveys completed in 1970 and 2004). Nearly every species declined between the surveys in both countries, and two species may have become extinct in the UK. Mean decline in distribution range for 49 species in the UK was 50% (range 14–100%), and 23 species declined by over 50%. The mean decline for 33 orchid species in Estonia was 25% (range 0–62%), and three species declined by over 50%. These results corroborate serious range declines recently reported for orchids in other regions of Europe (the Netherlands and Flanders, Belgium). In contrast with these other regions, we found that species associated with calcareous grassland and woodland habitats had suffered greater mean contractions in range than species of wet grassland habitats. Greater decline was recorded for species found on drier soils, and for species characteristic of open habitats. In addition, greater decline was found in species with short inflorescences, and in species that were short-lived, and clonal. Our results suggest that levels of decline shown both by groups of species associated with specific habitat types, and by particular species of orchid, depend strongly on local policies and specific conservation action, and indicate the habitat types on which conservation efforts may need to be concentrated in the future. The results suggest that grazing and mowing of competing vegetation, and avoidance of substrate disturbance, will produce the greatest rewards for the most vulnerable species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Examines the influence of sheep avoidance of feces-contaminated patches to a trade-off between intake rate of forage and parasitism in subsequent foraging decisions in Great Britain. Measurement of the cost and benefits of trade-off; Effects patch treatment on sward characteristics; Use of fecal egg counts to monitor the parasitic status of sheep.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB; Mycobacterium bovis) is a bacterial infection of cattle that also affects certain wildlife species. Culling badgers (Meles meles), the principal wildlife host, results in perturbation of the badger population and an increased level of disease in cattle. Therefore, the priority for future management must be to minimize the risk of disease transmission by finding new ways to reduce the contact rate among the host community. At the farm level, targeting those individuals that represent an elevated risk of transmission might prove to be effective. At the landscape level, risk mapping can provide the basis for targeted surveillance of the host community. Here, we review the current evidence for bTB persistence in Britain and make recommendations for future management and research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]