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This paper analyses two differing approaches to the improvement of local bus services, using the analytical lens of formal and informal institutions. Both formal and informal institutions govern the behaviour of authorities and operators, but they do it in different ways and they have advantages and disadvantages. In so doing we seek to understand both how the informal institutional approach (e.g. voluntary partnership working) can be used effectively, but also to assess its limits; and to understand why a formal institutional approach (e.g. franchising), in spite of its strong underlying basis in law, may nonetheless not always function. Through doing so, this paper contributes to the current understanding of how to handle the unintended consequences of a deregulated market through the different (formal and informal) ways available. • Compares two differing approaches to the improvement of local bus services. • Contrasts informal (voluntary partnership) with formal (franchsing) models. • Explores how to handle the unintended consequences of a deregulated market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous work by the authors has addressed the issue of local bus policy implementation in Britain outside London by studies of local transport documents, survey and interviews of local transport officers working in local authorities. The findings from these studies highlight that some of the key elements to successful implementation could be understood in more depth by taking a case study approach. This paper analyses four case studies of the implementation of specific bus policy measures in four different cities in Great Britain: the Quality Contract Scheme (QCS) in Tyne and Wear, the Fastlink Scheme in Glasgow, a Bus Priority Scheme in Solihull and a Smart Ticketing Scheme in Dundee. The findings in this paper show that policy champions, collaboration and interaction help to build a relationship between the parties involved, ensure limited changes due to bureaucratic power and changes to the policy, and help to overcome opposition, conflict and ambiguities. It is important that those involved in the policy process are provided with relevant training, supervision and support to help overcome the staffing difficulties and to deal with barriers external to the implementing organisation such as economic, social and political conditions. • Greatest influences on implementation are identified. • Greatest challenges faced by local authorities are identified. • Those involved in policy process require relevant training, supervision and support. • Authorities must be certain from the planning stage that resources are available. • Clear strategies and tactics improve policy development and collaboration, stakeholder engagement and decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides an empirical analysis of the severity outcomes of injury accidents (i.e., accidents that resulted in an injury-involved outcome) by exploring the possibility of two underlying injury-severity states: the minor-injury state and the ordered injury state. The former may reflect the generation mechanism of slight-injury accidents with limited potential to result in more severe injury outcomes, whereas, the latter may represent slight-injury accidents that share similarities with the mechanism of the more severe outcomes, in terms of their occurrence circumstances. To account for the possible presence of these two underlying regimes, a zero-inflated hierarchical ordered probit model with correlated disturbances is estimated using injury-severity data from single-vehicle accidents occurred in Scotland, UK between 2016 and 2017. The results of the empirical analysis provide statistical evidence on the possible presence of underlying states, with the identified effect of traditional driver-, vehicle-, roadway- and accident-specific determinants revealing the nuances and structural differences of such injury-severity states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides an empirical analysis of the severity outcomes of injury accidents (i.e., accidents that resulted in an injury-involved outcome) by exploring the possibility of two underlying injury-severity states: the minor-injury state and the ordered injury state. The former may reflect the generation mechanism of slight-injury accidents with limited potential to result in more severe injury outcomes, whereas, the latter may represent slight-injury accidents that share similarities with the mechanism of the more severe outcomes, in terms of their occurrence circumstances. To account for the possible presence of these two underlying regimes, a zero-inflated hierarchical ordered probit model with correlated disturbances is estimated using injury-severity data from single-vehicle accidents occurred in Scotland, UK between 2016 and 2017. The results of the empirical analysis provide statistical evidence on the possible presence of underlying states, with the identified effect of traditional driver-, vehicle-, roadway- and accident-specific determinants revealing the nuances and structural differences of such injury-severity states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Climate change is one of the key global policy issues of our time. Transport is the sector from which it has been hardest to cut emissions and, to make substantial progress in the future, action will be required at all levels of government from international to local. The governance of transport within this already challenging arena is further complicated by the existence of different structures for the management of transport modes and variations in formal governance structures across countries and regions. This paper examines the prospect for deep cuts in CO2 emissions from transport through an examination of the key policy levers for change and considering the governance issues that surround them. The focus of the paper is the United Kingdom, and in particular England and Scotland. The UK is the first country to have a legally binding internal obligation to meet carbon dioxide reduction targets and this has prompted significant activity in both governance institutions and delivery. The research uses a multi-level governance framework to understand the policy environment in England and Scotland, capturing both the range of spatial actors and the influence of sectoral actors in what is a complex polity. It is concluded that the policy approach currently appears constrained by a desire to divide accountability by formal institutional structures, thus failing to tackle the dispersed nature of travel and the national and international nature of businesses. There is currently a lack of clarity about the tiering of responsibilities between spatial levels and there is therefore a comparative lack of commitment to the potential for demand management and travel reduction strategies to contribute to carbon reduction. Carbon reduction policies are also influenced by strong industry lobbies whose goals may not be fully aligned with carbon reduction strategies. The profusion of actors engaged in climate change policy seems to dilute rather than promote effective policy making. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: There is a demonstrable link between parking availability, price and mode choice, and parking policy has been shown to be a powerful demand management tool. Parking however is clearly an area of policy conflict since using it to manage demand may reduce revenue generation, or (be perceived to) damage the local economy. In terms of on-street and off-street parking there are a wide range of users who often have conflicting opinions, which have to be taken into account in its management, invariably leading to parking policies and measures that do not maximise the demand management potential of parking. This paper presents a range of public and business opinion data, from the case study of Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, collected as part of the consultation for its parking strategy in 2005–2006. The strategy covers a wider geographical area than simply the city centre, and whilst this paper makes reference to this wider area it primarily deals with the city centre since that is where the majority of the parking strategy issues are to be found. After setting the policy and political context, the paper goes on to present these data. It then shows how the city''s parking policies were changed in response to the consultation. These policy changes are compared with parking policies that would solely manage travel demand, to demonstrate how the political process leads to compromise in the formulation of parking policies and measures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Airports employ significant numbers of workers who favour using the private car for the journey to work because of the location of many facilities and the times they need to travel. At the same time official policies for congestion and environmental reasons seek to limit car use. This can pose parking problems for the airports. This note looks at some of the particular issues confronting UK airport management when trying to conform to official policies while at the same time meeting the needs of their workers and the role charging may play in the solution. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This research aims to identify barriers to the implementation of local transport policy by exploring bus policy implementation in Great Britain. The methodology is based on an online survey with 56% of local authorities and follow-up interviews with 10 of those officers, analysed via a ten-point hybrid theory. The greatest challenges faced by local authorities included the availability of financial and staff resources, the existence of a clear policy document and inter-organisational communication. The relationship between setting policy objectives, selecting suitable measures to achieve those objectives, and setting and monitoring targets was identified as key to successful policy implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the principal-agent problem as part of a broader discussion of the challenges of privatising and outsourcing of public utilities. The research asks: how can a public transport authority (the principal) motivate bus operators (agents) to achieve the authority's goals (more and better public transport) when their respective interests may not align? The case study is based on the UK "Quality Contract Scheme", an option that has never been used before, thus providing an opportunity to understand the challenges in such cooperative schemes, and explore how public authorities struggle to achieve their goals via private service providers. Our findings reveal that the actors could not align their incentives due to transaction costs and information asymmetry, which ultimately damaged the quality of the financial projections and thwarted approval of the scheme. • The information asymmetry between the principal and the agent is one of the defining features of the principal-agent problem. • There is no incentive for bus operators to give up their business in favour of having to bid against competitors. • The agent currently retains the power and the principal cannot act directly. • There are flaws within the Acts which provided the statutory framework for implementing a QCS. • The London model of regulation and franchising is recognised as a viable option for Britain outside London. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]