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Background: Recent CMS billing changes have raised concerns about insurance coverage for deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap breast reconstruction. This study compared the costs and utilization of transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM), DIEP, and latissimus dorsi (LD) flaps in breast reconstruction., Method: The study utilized the National Inpatient Sample database to identify female patients who underwent DIEP, TRAM, and LD flap procedures from 2016 to 2019. Key data such as patient demographics, length of stay, complications, and costs (adjusted to 2021 USD) were analyzed, focusing on differences across the flap types., Results: A total of 17,770 weighted patient encounters were identified, with the median age being 51. The majority underwent DIEP flaps (73.5%), followed by TRAM (14.2%) and LD (12.1%) flaps. The findings revealed that DIEP and TRAM flaps had a similar length of stay (LOS), while LD flaps typically had a shorter LOS. The total hospital charges to costs using cost-to-charge ratio were also comparable between DIEP and TRAM flaps, whereas LD flaps were significantly less expensive. Factors such as income quartile, primary payer of hospitalization, and geographic region significantly influenced flap choice., Conclusion: The study's results appear to contradict the prevailing notion that TRAM flaps are more cost-effective than DIEP flaps. The total hospital charges to costs using cost-to-charge ratio and hospital stays associated with TRAM and DIEP flaps were found to be similar. These findings suggest that changes in the insurance landscape, which may limit the use of DIEP flaps, could undermine patient autonomy while not necessarily reducing healthcare costs. Such policy shifts could favor less costly options like the LD flap, potentially altering the landscape of microvascular breast reconstruction., (© 2024 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Background: The recent proposed alterations to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services regulations, although subsequently reversed on August 21, 2023, have engendered persistent concerns regarding the impact of insurance policies on breast reconstruction procedures coverage. This study aimed to identify factors that would influence women's preferences regarding autologous breast reconstruction to better understand the possible consequences of these coverage changes., Methods: A survey of adult women in the United States was conducted via Amazon Mechanical Turk to assess patient preferences for breast reconstruction options, specifically deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) and transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap surgery. The Cochrane-Armitage test evaluated trends in flap preferences concerning incremental out-of-pocket payment increases., Results: Of 500 total responses, 485 were completed and correctly answered a verification question to ensure adequate attention to the survey, with respondents having a median (interquartile range) age of 26 (25-39) years. When presented with the advantages and disadvantages of DIEP versus TRAM flaps, 78% of respondents preferred DIEP; however, as DIEP's out-of-pocket price incrementally rose, more respondents favored the cheaper TRAM option, with $3804 being the "indifference point" where preferences for both procedures converged (P < 0.001). Notably, respondents with a personal history of breast reconstruction showed a higher preference for DIEP, even at a $10,000 out-of-pocket cost (P = 0.04)., Conclusions: Out-of-pocket cost can significantly influence women's choices for breast reconstruction. These findings encourage a reevaluation of emergent insurance practices that could potentially increase out-of-pocket costs associated with DIEP flaps, to prevent cost from decreasing equitable patient access to most current reconstructive options., Competing Interests: Conflicts of interest and sources of funding: none declared., (Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Autologous breast reconstruction (ABR) has increased in recent decades, although concerns for access remain. As such, our goal is to trend national demographics and operative characteristics of ABR in the United States., Methods: Using the National Inpatient Sample, 2016-2019, the International Classification of Disease , Tenth Edition codes identified adult female encounters undergoing ABR. Demographics and procedure-related characteristics were recorded. Discharge weights generated national estimates. Statistical analysis included univariate testing and multivariate regression modeling., Results: A total of 52,910 weighted encounters met the criteria (mean age, 51.5 ± 10.0 years). Autologous breast reconstruction utilization increased (Δ = +5%), 2016-2019, primarily driven by a rise in deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) reconstructions (Δ = +28%; incidence rate ratio [IRR], 1.070; P < 0.001), which were predominant throughout the study period (69%). More recent surgery year, bilateral reconstruction, higher income levels, commercial insurance, and care in the South US region increased the odds of DIEP-based ABR ( P ≤ 0.036). Transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flaps, bilateral reconstructions, higher comorbidity levels, and experiencing complications increased the length of stay ( P ≤ 0.038). Most ABRs (75%) were privately insured. The rates of immediate reconstructions increased over the study period (from 26% to 46%; IRR, 1.223; P < 0.001), as did the rates of bilateral reconstructions (from 54% to 57%; IRR, 1.026; P = 0.030). The rates of ABRs performed at teaching hospitals remained high (90% to 93%; P = 0.242)., Conclusions: As of 2019, ABR has become more prevalent, with the DIEP flap constituting the most common modality. With the increasing ABR popularity, efforts should be made to ensure geographic and financial accessibility., Competing Interests: Conflicts of interest and sources of funding: none declared., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a potentially devastating complication following abdominally based microsurgical breast reconstruction, with a reported incidence of 0.08-4%. The authors aim to describe disease presentation and clinical course following VTE diagnosis in patients within their practice., Methods: A retrospective chart review identified patients who underwent microsurgical breast reconstruction from January 2007 through December 2018. Patients with VTE diagnosed within 90 days of surgery were included. Demographics, co-morbidities, signs and symptoms, and characteristics of oncologic, surgical, and post-operative care were analyzed., Results: Seven hundred one patients underwent microsurgical breast reconstruction. Eleven patients with pulmonary embolism (PE) and four with deep vein thrombosis (DVT) were identified, resulting in VTE incidence of 2.1% (0.57% DVT, 1.6% PE). Patients were on average 51 years old and had an average body mass index (BMI) of 31.7 kg/m2. Two had a history of VTE, and none had a known hypercoagulable disorder. Using the 2005 Caprini model, all were high risk and seven were highest risk. Among those with PE, the most common symptom was shortness of breath, and the most common signs were desaturation or supplemental oxygen requirements. VTE was diagnosed on average 14.2 days post-operatively (range 2-52 days)., Conclusion: VTE is an infrequent complication following abdominally based microsurgical breast reconstruction. We recommend a high index of suspicion in women reporting shortness of breath or having desaturation, especially in those with high BMI, high Caprini scores, post-operative complications, or early return to the operating room., (Copyright © 2021 British Association of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background:  Bilateral mastectomy rates are increasing in the United States. The abdomen is the most common harvest site for autologous reconstruction. Nationwide data were examined to determine differences in hospital charges, length of stay (LOS), and early postoperative complications following immediate bilateral pedicled transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (pTRAM), free TRAM (fTRAM), deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP), and superficial inferior epigastric artery (SIEA) perforator flaps and were compared with unilateral reconstruction., Methods:  Patients who underwent immediate bilateral breast reconstruction using a single method of abdominally based reconstruction were identified using the 2009 to 2014 Nationwide Inpatient Sample Database. Outcomes included total hospital charges, LOS, and immediate postoperative complications., Results:  We identified 13,348 cases of bilateral mastectomy with a single type of immediate bilateral autologous flap reconstruction. The majority were bilateral DIEP flaps. Mean total cost for bilateral pTRAM, fTRAM, DIEP, and SIEA flaps was US $21,886.80, US $28,839.40, US $30,051.30, and US $33,784.90, respectively ( p  < 0.0001). Mean LOS for bilateral pTRAM, fTRAM, DIEP, and SIEA was 4.3, 4.9, 4.5, and 5.4 days, respectively ( p  = 0.0002), and hematoma rates were 1.93, 2.61, 3.68, and 16.59%, respectively, ( p  = 0.0001), whereas return to the operating room for vascular anastomosis revision was 0, 1.63, 1.99, and 19.07%, respectively ( p  < 0.0001). Cost is less for unilateral pTRAM, fTRAM, and DIEP flaps ( p  < 0.0001). LOS is shorter for unilateral fTRAM versus bilateral ( p  < 0.0001). No differences were appreciated between unilateral and bilateral hematoma and reoperation rates for any reconstruction ( p  > 0.1)., Conclusion:  Immediate complication rates were higher in bilateral free flaps compared with bilateral pedicled flaps. pTRAM and fTRAM flap reconstructions are still performed frequently with acceptable immediate results without considering long-term morbidity, aesthetics, and abdominal muscle function. Bilateral SIEA free flaps were associated with significantly higher total cost, LOS, and complication rates compared with other groups. Complications were similar between unilateral and bilateral reconstruction procedures. While cost is significantly greater for bilateral procedures compared with unilateral pTRAM, fTRAM, and DIEP flaps, it is not doubled., Competing Interests: None declared., (Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.)

Background: Breast reconstruction plays a significant role in breast cancer treatment recovery. Introduction of the BREAST-Q questionnaire has facilitated quantifying patient-reported quality-of-life measures, promoting improved evidence-based clinical practice. Information regarding the effects of body mass index on patient-reported outcomes and health-related quality of life is significantly lacking., Methods: Consecutive deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap breast reconstruction patients prospectively completed BREAST-Q questionnaires preoperatively and at two points postoperatively. The first (postoperative time point A) and second (postoperative time point B) postoperative questionnaires were completed 1 month postoperatively and following breast revision, respectively. Postoperative flap and donor-site complications were recorded prospectively. BREAST-Q scores were compared at all time points and stratified by body mass index group (≤25, >25 to 29.9, 30 to 34.9, and ≥35 kg/m)., Results: Between July of 2012 and August of 2016, 73 patients underwent 130 DIEP flap breast reconstructions. Breast satisfaction and psychosocial and sexual well-being scores increased significantly postoperatively. Chest and abdominal physical well-being scores returned to baseline levels by postoperative point B. Preoperatively, stratified by body mass index, breast satisfaction and psychosocial well-being scores were significantly lower among patients with body mass index of 35 or higher and of more than 30, respectively. After reconstruction, not only were breast satisfaction, psychosocial, and sexual well-being scores significantly improved in all body mass index groups versus baseline, but also between-body mass index group differences were no longer present. Outcome satisfaction, flap, and donor-site morbidity were similar irrespective of body mass index., Conclusions: Patient-reported outcomes demonstrate significant improvements in breast satisfaction and psychosocial and sexual well-being among patients following DIEP flap reconstruction. Preoperative differences in quality-of-life scores were improved in patients with obesity (body mass index ≥30 kg/m)., Clinical Question/level of Evidence: Risk, II.

Background: Approximately 20 percent of women select autologous tissue for postmastectomy breast reconstruction, and most commonly choose the abdomen as the donor site. An increasing proportion of women are seeking muscle-sparing procedures, but the benefit remains controversial. It is therefore important to determine whether better outcomes are associated with these techniques, thereby justifying longer operative times and increased costs., Methods: Patients from five North American centers were eligible if they underwent reconstruction by means of the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) flap, muscle-sparing free transverse abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap, free TRAM flap, or the pedicled TRAM flap. Patients were sent the BREAST-Q. Demographics and complications were collected., Results: The authors analyzed 1790 charts representing 670 DIEP, 293 muscle-sparing free TRAM, 683 pedicled TRAM, and 144 free TRAM patients with an average follow-up of 5.5 years. Flap loss did not differ by flap type. Partial flap loss was higher in pedicled TRAM compared with DIEP (p = 0.002). Fat necrosis was higher in pedicled TRAM compared with DIEP and muscle-sparing free TRAM (p < 0.001). Hernia/bulge was highest in pedicled TRAM (p < 0.001). Physical well-being (abdomen) scores were higher in DIEP compared with pedicled TRAM controlling for confounders., Conclusions: Complications and patient-reported outcomes differ when comparing abdominally based breast reconstruction techniques. The results of this study show that the DIEP flap was associated with the highest abdominal well-being and the lowest abdominal morbidity compared with the pedicled TRAM flap, but did not differ from muscle-sparing free TRAM and free TRAM flaps., Clinical Question/level of Evidence: Therapeutic, III.

Background: As rates of bilateral prophylactic mastectomy and contralateral prophylactic mastectomy have increased over the past decade, bilateral microvascular breast reconstruction has played an increasing role in breast cancer care. Data on unilateral flap failure in bilateral microvascular breast reconstructions have been lacking, and strategies to address the challenges encountered in this situation are needed., Methods: A retrospective review of all simultaneous bilateral microvascular breast reconstructions performed by the senior author (M.Y.N.) from July of 1999 to July of 2008 was conducted. Flap failures were identified and reviewed for operative parameters, causes of flap loss, and techniques used for secondary reconstruction., Results: The authors identified 171 consecutive patients who underwent bilateral microvascular breast reconstruction between July of 1999 and July of 2008. In these patients, 342 flaps were attempted, including 108 free transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flaps, 228 deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flaps, and six superior gluteal artery perforator flaps. Twelve flaps failed or were aborted intraoperatively, yielding an overall failure rate of 3.5 percent. The authors' unilateral microsurgical breast reconstruction failure rate over this period was 2.1 percent (eight of 386). No bilateral failures occurred. Causes of flap failure included venous insufficiency (six of 12), lack of adequate perforator anatomy (three of 12), and perforator injury during dissection (two of 12). Secondary reconstruction with tissue expanders and implants was performed in 11 of 12 patients who underwent an average of 2.25 additional procedures to complete reconstruction., Conclusions: Flap failure is more common in bilateral reconstructions than in unilateral reconstructions, largely secondary to the obligation to use both sides of the abdominal donor tissue. When flap failure does occur, techniques to optimize prosthetic reconstruction can ultimately result in successful bilateral reconstructions despite free flap failure.

Among strategies recently proposed to reduce practice variation, promote quality, and control costs in health care delivery, the concept of the clinical pathway has received considerable attention. Because transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) breast reconstruction is a common and often costly intervention, this institution sought to evaluate cost and quality outcomes of a clinical pathways program for this procedure. The TRAM reconstruction clinical pathway was implemented in April of 1996 to standardize postoperative care in this patient population. Outcomes of consecutive pathway cases for the first 14 months of the program were assessed in a retrospective cohort design, by using all nonpathway TRAM cases from the 18 months immediately before pathway implementation as controls. Outcomes assessed included length of hospital stay, postoperative complications, total postoperative charges, and total postoperative costs in relative value units. Data on these dependent variables were collected from hospital charts and billing records. The effects of pathway implementation on the outcomes of interest were analyzed by using analysis of covariance to control for potential confounding by other independent variables, including surgical site (unilateral versus bilateral reconstructions), technique (pedicle versus free TRAMs), timing (immediate versus delayed reconstructions), and patient age. Finally, a comparison of variances in the outcomes of interest between the two groups was analyzed by using an Ftest. For all statistical tests, p values of < or = 0.05 were considered significant. Twenty-nine patients were treated in the TRAM pathway group, whereas the control population included 40 nonpathway patients. After implementation of the TRAM pathway, length of stay decreased from 6.0 to 5.2 days; total postoperative charges were reduced from $8587 to $7744; and total postoperative relative value unit utilization declined from 1686 to 1104. Analysis of covariance showed that the decreases in length of hospital stay and relative value units in the TRAM pathway were statistically significant (p = 0.05 and p = 0.007, respectively). By contrast, no significant increase in complications was observed after pathway implementation. Variability in the TRAM pathway group, as measured by SD, decreased significantly for both length of hospital stay (p = 0.039) and relative value units (p = 0.023). Implementation of the TRAM reconstruction clinical pathway resulted in significant declines in length of hospital stay and total costs. These decreases in resource utilization had no significant effect on postoperative complication rates. Although additional research is needed to further assess the impact of clinical pathways, this approach offers considerable promise for improving the cost-effectiveness of health care.