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Reviewing public health, nutrition, and social science literature, this article examines how bottled water consumption and spending in the United States differ along lines of race, ethnicity, and income, how these consumption patterns have changed in recent years, and how those shifts map onto perceptions of the safety and trustworthiness of tap water supplies, both before and since the Flint water disaster. It also addresses the differential impact of bottled water spending on household income. The findings challenge the truism that bottled water consumption is positively correlated with income, instead showing a bimodal racial and class consumption pattern that reflects widely divergent perceptions—and the uneven distribution—of threats to tap water safety. Bottled water consumption and spending, as well as distrust of tap water, are highest among low-income, Black, and Latino/a households, exacerbating social inequality. The article also addresses how the bottled water industry is responding to these dynamics, and considers potential routes to restoring both public water infrastructure and trust in tap water supplies. This contribution links several current and salient topics: the relationship between bottled water's growth and tap water consumption; the dynamics of growing racial and income inequality; historical legacies of systemic racism and economic marginalization; and the uneven effects of disinvestment in US water infrastructure on tap water safety, access, and affordability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our study explored current environmental sustainability practices of U.S. camps as well as the motivations and barriers influencing integration of sustainable operational approaches. Using a web survey of camp organizations in Spring 2021, we identified participation in sustainable actions across five broad categories: waste management, sustainability education and communication, natural resource and wildlife conservation, energy and water consumption, and purchasing and procurement. Many camp organizations already engaged in sustainable practices--especially with respect to waste management and sustainability education--but almost all camps wanted to do more. Camp organizations placed higher priority on environmental and social motivations for sustainability than economic reasons. The largest perceived barrier to sustainability was inadequate financial and/or technological resources, though lack of awareness and capacitybuilding assistance were also constraints. Results highlight strong interest in sustainability across the camp industry and reveal multiple ways to realize that potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed how we define "home", which is recast as the new coffee shop, restaurant, entertainment center, and office during the pandemic. The shift toward working from home led to substantial changes in how consumers behave, affecting the consumption of resources in some cases for years to come. Using data from six water utilities in various states in the U.S., we investigated how water consumption has changed attributable to the implementation of stay-at-home (SAH) orders. The results indicated an overall increase of between 3.08% and 13.65% in daily water consumption during the SAH orders compared to the same period in 2018 and 2019, with the gaps closing as lockdown restrictions eased. The findings also revealed that the changes in water consumption across sectors and user groups were heterogeneous. Specifically, the results showed that total daily residential water demand during SAH orders in 2020 increased significantly, between 11.80% and 13.65%, relative to the same period in 2018 and 2019, but the changes in water consumption for non-residential properties headed in opposite directions with reductions between −22.53% and −45.08%. In addition, we found that the low-income groups did not change their water consumption even with the lockdown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent decade has witnessed an increase in irrigated acreage in the southeast United States due to the shift in cropping patterns, climatic conditions, and water availability. Peanut, a major legume crop cultivated in Georgia, Southeast United States, has been a staple food in the American household. Regardless of its significant contribution to the global production of peanuts (fourth largest), studies related to local or regional scale water consumption in peanut production and its significant environmental impacts are scarce. Therefore, the present research contributes to the water footprint of peanut crops in eight counties of Georgia and its potential ecological impacts. The impact categories relative to water consumption (water depletion—green and blue water scarcity) and pesticide use (water degradation—potential freshwater ecotoxicity) using crop-specific characterization factors are estimated for the period 2007 to 2017 at the mid-point level. These impacts are transformed into damages to the area of protection in terms of ecosystem quality at the end-point level. This is the first county-wise quantification of the water footprint and its impact assessment using ISO 14046 framework in the southeast United States. The results suggest inter-county differences in water consumption of crops with higher blue water requirements than green and grey water. According to the water footprint analysis of the peanut crop conducted in this study, additional irrigation is recommended in eight Georgia counties. The mid-point level impact assessment owing to water consumption and pesticide application reveals that the potential freshwater ecotoxicity impacts at the planting and growing stages are higher for chemicals with high characterization factors regardless of lower pesticide application rates. Multiple regression analysis indicates blue water, yield, precipitation, maximum surface temperature, and growing degree days are the potential factors influencing freshwater ecotoxicity impacts. Accordingly, a possible impact pathway of freshwater ecotoxicity connecting the inventory flows and the ecosystem quality is defined. This analysis is helpful in the comparative environmental impact assessments for other major crops in Georgia and aids in water resource management decisions. The results from the study could be of great relevance to the southeast United States, as well as other regions with similar climatic zones and land use patterns. The assessment of water use impacts relative to resource availability can assist farmers in determining the timing and layout of crop planting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key Takeaways: Eleven utilities from across the United States were studied to understand the pandemic's effects on water consumption and utility revenues. Most utilities in the study saw an overall increase in water consumption with a rise in residential demand that offset declines in nonresidential demand. Most utilities in the study experienced increased revenues in 2020 compared with previous years, largely due to rate increases, inclining block rates, and an unusually warm summer. Water utilities' ability to adjust to fluctuating demand and changing revenue patterns is a testament to their sound financial practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sustainability of large dams has been questioned on several grounds. One aspect that has been less explored is that the development of dams and reservoirs often enables agricultural expansion and urban growth, which in turn increase water consumption. As such, dam development influences, while being influenced by, the spatial and temporal distribution of both supply and demand of water resources. In this paper, we explore the interplay between large dams, patterns of population growth and agricultural expansion in the United States over the past two centuries. Based on a large-scale analysis of spatial and temporal trends, we identify three distinct phases, in which different processes dominated the interplay. Then, we focus on agricultural water use in the Southwest region (Arizona, California and Nevada) and explore chicken-and-egg dynamics where water supply partly meets and partly fuels water demand. Lastly, we show that the legacy of dams in the United States consists of a lock-in condition characterized by high levels of water consumption, especially in the Southwest, which leads to severe water crises and groundwater overexploitation when droughts occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unsustainable human activities are rapidly depleting freshwater resources in many parts of the United States. Public policy surrounding water conservation is arguably one of the most essential strategies for targeting the preservation of water. Increased public engagement in environmental policy may bolster sustainable consumption of water resources if nuances in human behavior are targeted through communication messages. A quantitative research design using an online survey of the general United States public was used to explore if political affiliation and political ideology predicted how respondents prepared to vote on a policy that impacts water. The study revealed that respondents neither agreed nor disagreed on the level to which they would take specific actions to become prepared to vote on a policy that impacts water, indicating there is room for improvement. Results from a multiple linear regression revealed political affiliation and political ideology significantly predicted how respondents prepared to vote on a policy that impacts water; however, they accounted for a small amount of variance in the models. Future studies should identify additional predictors to determine how respondents prepare to vote on a policy that impacts water since political affiliation and political ideology were not a major influence on how respondents prepare to vote. Environmental communicators should focus their outreach efforts on increasing public preparedness to vote on polices that impact water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Virtual water flows are used to map the indirect water consumption connections implied by the supply chain of a city, region, or country. This information can be used to manage supply chains to achieve environmental policy objectives and mitigate environmental risks to critical supply chains. A limitation of prior work is that these flows are typically analyzed using monolayer networks, which ignores crucial intersectoral or interlayer couplings. Here, we use a multilayer network to account for such couplings when analyzing blue virtual water flows in the United States. Our multilayer network consists of 115 different regions (nodes), covering the entire conterminous United States; 41 coupled economic sectors (layers); and ∼2 × 107 possible links. To analyze the multilayer network, we focus on three fundamental network properties: topological connectivity, mesoscale structure, and node centrality. The network has a high connectivity, with each node being on average connected to roughly 2/3 of the network's nodes. Interlayer flows are a major driver of connectivity, representing ∼54% of all the network's connections. Five different groups of tightly connected nodes (communities) characterize the network. Each community represents a preferred spatial mode of long‐range virtual water interaction within the United States. We find that large (populous) cities have a stronger influence than small ones on network functioning because they attract and recirculate more virtual water through their supply chains. Our results also highlight differences between the multilayer and monolayer virtual water network, which overall show that the former provides a more realistic representation of virtual water flows. Plain Language Summary: Water is a critical input in the production of any product. The total water used in the production of a consumer product, including the water used in the production of the product's raw materials and component parts, is known as the embedded or virtual water. By tracing the water used in the production of a product along all its supply‐chain stages, we map the flow of virtual water between regions for the entire product economy of the United States. This mapping results in a multilayer network of virtual water flows. By analyzing this network, we identify five dominant spatial patterns of virtual water interactions in the United States. Each pattern represents a group of distant regions that strongly depend on each other for the provisioning of virtual water. One pattern shows that a substantial amount of water withdrawn on the Western United States is used to meet cities' demand for products on the Eastern seaboard. The identification of these patterns is a critical step in the design of strategies for making supply chains more resilient to water stress and reducing the impact of economic activity on water‐scarce regions. Key Points: The United States has five distinctive interregional patterns or spatial modes of long‐range virtual water interactionsLarge cities have a greater influence than small ones on network functioning because they act as bottlenecks in the flow of virtual waterMultilayer network provides a more realistic representation of virtual water flows than single‐layer network [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the US electric power sector transitioning towards a low-carbon system, the escalated adoption of renewable energy has paradoxically increased water consumption. Consequently, it is imperative to engineer a power generation matrix that mitigates CO 2 emissions and minimizes water utilization. The primary endeavor should be to meticulously identify the variables affecting water consumption changes, especially highlighting and addressing the inherent tension between water conservation and carbon reduction. Employing temporal and spatial Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index methodologies, this study meticulously investigated the factors driving water consumption changes across state-level electricity production sectors in the US from 2010 to 2018. The analysis revealed that the generation mix structure was a predominant factor in escalating water consumption, exerting a more substantial influence than total power generation. Moreover, while the water consumption coefficient initially mitigates the impact of other factors, its effectiveness diminishes over time. Utilizing spatial Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index techniques, this paper further delineated state-level disparities, illuminating the heterogeneous nature of water consumption across regions. Projections up to 2050 suggest that water consumption reductions could be realized even amidst a highly intense scenario. The study's robustness and reliability were further augmented by employing an adaptive Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index. • Temporal-spatial LMDI reveals significant shifts in the US power sector water consumption. • Water consumption coefficient, fuel structure, and generation identified as key drivers. • Scenario analysis forecasts significant water savings potential by 2050. • Findings highlight the necessity for integrated water-energy transition policies. • Study proposes targeted strategies for a sustainable energy-water nexus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effectively adapting to climate change involves overcoming social and ecological system barriers. The present study uses a three‐phase adaptation framework to propose adaptation strategies aimed at overcoming socioecological barriers of the food–energy–water (FEW) nexus. Cradle‐to‐farm‐gate land, greenhouse gas (GHG), and water impacts—that derive from food consumption in the United States—are analyzed and differentiated by major demographic groups (Black, Latinx, and White). Results indicate that the White demographic yields the highest per capita GHG (680 kg of CO2 eq⋅year−1) and water impacts (328,600 L⋅year−1) from food consumption, whereas the Black demographic yields the highest per capita land impacts (1,770 m2⋅year−1) from food consumption. Our findings suggest that obtaining data with the intention of building consensus across sociodemographic lines overcomes barriers in the understanding phase, leading to increased social receptivity for many planning and managing phase processes. Specifically, we find that identifying and developing leaders who possess the cognitive and interpersonal capacity to manage many variables and stakeholders is key to assessing and selecting adaptation options in the planning phase. We also propose using government programming to encourage environmentally friendly food purchasing behavior. Then, we discuss how our proposals could be used in adaptation feasibility and evaluation activities in the managing phase. In all, these findings facilitate the development of improved climate change adaptation and policy by satisfying the understanding phase of the climate change adaptation framework, establishing a cross‐disciplinary methodological approach to addressing socioecological problems, and providing useful FEW impact data for FEW nexus and climate change researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption in early childhood is a public health concern. Adequate hydration in early childhood is also important. We developed a national research agenda to improve beverage consumption patterns among 0-5-year-olds. This article focuses on the process used to develop this research agenda.Design: A mixed methods, multi-step process was used to develop the research agenda, including: (i) a scientific advisory committee; (ii) systematic reviews on strategies to reduce SSB consumption and increase water access and consumption; (iii) two stakeholder surveys to first identify and then rank strategies to reduce SSB consumption and increase water access and consumption; (iv) key informant interviews to better understand determinants of beverage consumption and strategies to improve beverage consumption patterns among high-risk groups; (v) an in-person convening with experts; and (vi) developing the final research agenda.Setting: This process included research and stakeholders from across the United States.Participants: A total of 276 participants completed survey 1 and 182 participants completed survey 2. Key informant interviews were conducted with 12 stakeholders. Thirty experts attended the convening, representing academia, government, and non-profit sectors.Results: Thirteen key issue areas and 59 research questions were developed. Priority topics were beverage consumption recommendations, fruit-flavoured drink consumption, interventions tailored to high-risk groups, and family engagement in childcare.Conclusions: This research agenda lays the groundwork for research efforts to improve beverage patterns of young children. The methods used can be a template to develop research agendas for other public health issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tremendous variation exists in how cities, states, countries, and other jurisdictional areas classify water use and consumption. Additionally, water conservation measures have become more common in the past few decades, but little is known about how these conservation measures are implemented across the landscape. The goal of this study is to increase the breadth of knowledge regarding municipal water-use data: retention, storage, availability, and delving into water conservation measures, along with the impact of shale oil extraction on municipal water use in the Bakken region. Two questionnaires were developed and administered to all municipalities in the state of North Dakota, USA with populations greater than 1000 residents, and between 500 and 1000 residents in the Bakken region (total number (n) =59) willing to participate. Results indicate water conservation measures are inconsistent across the landscape, and data categorization at the municipal level is minimal which limits the analysis, interpretations, and projections that can be made from the data. Additionally, the Bakken region is different from the rest of the state in how they acquire water and sell water to other large scale users. Results from this study will aid water use professionals worldwide by providing valuable information on water-use data, access, storage, and impacts of large water users, such as shale oil extraction, on municipal water. This information will also help researchers to understand availability of data for making comparisons across different areas, assessing trends, and making water use projections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Problem, research strategy, and findings: Cities across the United States must have reliable and consistent water supplies to support public health, promote economic growth, and protect the environment. The way we build and design cities influences water consumption patterns; however, the most significant factors of the built environment and their associations with water use are not well explored. In this study we seek to reveal the ways in which characteristics of the built environment influence urban water use. We analyze spatially detailed data sets of water use and the built environment in four different cities in the western United States. Our findings indicate the built environment in these cities has a substantial influence on single-family residential water use. Specifically, we find that vegetated land cover, housing density, and lot size are influential determinants of water use. However, we did find variation in the strength and significance of these variables between the cities, and there remains a need for city-specific analyses. Takeaway for practice: The results indicate even small changes to design and permitting for single-family residential properties can produce substantial cumulative water savings for cities. Based on our findings, we propose planning and design strategies such as form-based codes, zoning, and municipal ordinances to help growing cities reduce their water use. We present estimates of the water conservation impacts these strategies might achieve and provide specific examples of planning documents, municipal ordinances, and land use plans some cities are already using to reduce their water use. Overall, our study provides empirical evidence to further support integrating land use planning and water management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) infection is one of the major causes of diarrheal disease throughout the world. In recent years, an increase in human S. Javiana infection has been reported from the southern part of the United States. However, the sources and routes of transmission of this Salmonella serotype are not well understood. The objective of this study was to perform a systematic review of the literature to identify risk factors for human S. Javiana infection. Using PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic search in Web of Science, PubMed, and the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). Searches returned 63 potential articles, of which 12 articles met all eligibility criteria and were included in this review. A review of the literature indicated that both food and non-food (such as animal contact) exposures are responsible for the transmission of S. Javiana infection to humans. Consumption of fresh produce (tomatoes and watermelons), herbs (paprika-spice), dairy products (cheese), drinking contaminated well water and animal contact were associated with human S. Javiana infections. Based on the findings of this study, control of human S. Javiana infection should include three factors, (a) consumption of drinking water after treatment, (b) safe animal contact, and (c) safe food processing and handling procedures. The risk factors of S. Javiana infections identified in the current study provide helpful insight into the major vehicles of transmission of S. Javiana. Eventually, this will help to improve the risk management of this Salmonella serotype to reduce the overall burden of NTS infection in humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Public pressure exists in the United States to eliminate race‐day furosemide administration despite its efficacy in decreasing the severity of equine exercise pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH). No effective alternative prophylaxis strategies have been identified. Objective: To investigate alternative protocols to race‐day furosemide that might mitigate EIPH. Animals: Seven fit Thoroughbreds with recent EIPH. Methods: Double‐blinded placebo‐controlled Latin square crossover using a treadmill followed by a blinded placebo‐controlled crossover study at a racetrack. First, horses exercised supramaximally to fatigue 24 hours after initiating 5 EIPH prophylaxis protocols: 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg furosemide IV 24 hours pre‐exercise with and without controlled access to water, and 24 hour controlled access to water. Effects were compared to those measured after giving a placebo 24 hours pre‐exercise, and 0.5 mg/kg furosemide IV 4 hours pre‐exercise. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) erythrocyte count was determined 45‐60 minutes postexercise after endoscopy to assign an EIPH score. Data were analyzed using linear mixed effects models. The most promising protocol from the treadmill study was further evaluated in 6 horses using endoscopy and BAL after 1100 m simulated races. Results: Intravenous furosemide (0.5 mg/kg) administered 24 hours pre‐exercise combined with controlled access to water decreased the severity of EIPH on the treadmill and at the racetrack. Conclusion and Clinical Importance: Administering 0.5 mg/kg furosemide 24 hours pre‐racing combined with controlling water intake may be a strategy to replace race‐day furosemide administration for the management of EIPH. A larger study is indicated to further evaluate whether this protocol significantly mitigates EIPH severity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this study was to examine cost impacts using techno-economic analysis (TEA) and environmental impacts using life-cycle assessment (LCA) for the production of red wine. Three production scales, denoted as "small" (5000 gal per year), "medium" (50,000 gal per year), and "large" (500,000 gal per year) were chosen for analysis. For example, the consumption of water, energy, greenhouse gas emissions, and solid waste generation were considered in order to estimate environmental impacts. A spreadsheet-based economic model was also developed. The results of the LCA and TEA were compared amongst all production scales. The results of the LCA showed that both bottle manufacturing and various wine-making processes contributed the greatest environmental impacts. For TEA, the relationships between costs and profits increased as production scale increased; exponential trend lines could describe the data, but linear models were better. This information can be useful when considering what size of winery might be appropriate to invest in, or what operational categories may be most impactful in terms of costs and environmental burdens and, thus, may be targets for efficiency improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Most life cycle inventories (LCIs) of electricity consumed in different regions of the USA disregard the power that is being traded between these regions, while the US EPA's eGRID database does not contain scope 3 or noncombustion emissions. The relevance of these omissions has not yet been comprehensively quantified in the literature. This paper aims to close this knowledge gap. Methods: The parameterized inventory models that underlie all publicly available grid mix datasets in the GaBi databases were configured to create 26 eGRID subregional LCIs based on data from EPA's eGRID2014 database and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission's FERC-714 report on power trade for the same reference year. Results were calculated regarding climate change, acidification, eutrophication, particulate matter, smog formation, and blue water consumption per kilowatt hour of electricity and compared for direct plant emissions only, the cradle-to-gate production mix (including scope 3), and the cradle-to-gate consumption mix (including scope 3 and power imports). Results and discussion: Results showed that the scope 3 burdens represent the most significant data gap if not accounted for. Specifically, the GWP results show median increases of around + 18% for GWP100 and of + 30% for GWP20 when scope 3 GHG emissions are added to the direct plant emissions. Other impact categories showed even larger increases when compared to direct plant emissions, with a maximum increase of + 573% in eutrophication potential for the subregion CAMX. While the median deviations of the consumption mixes compared to the production mixes are moderate, individual subregions show significant increases in environmental burdens for selected metrics. However, power trade seems less of an issue for the impact category of climate change as only the CAMX subregion shows an increase larger than 10% when power trade is accounted for. Conclusions: A cradle-to-gate production mix can be a suitable proxy of the environmental burdens of electricity consumed in many subregions, but it can also lead to significant errors for others depending on the environmental metric(s) one is trying to assess. Power plant emissions by themselves (scope 2) that exclude both scope 3 emissions and power trade cannot be recommended for use in any kind of carbon accounting or other environmental analysis because they suffer from severe data gaps and may skew the comparison of the environmental burdens associated with power consumption in the different subregions significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water consumption for crop irrigation is the largest single use of water in the U.S. but is poorly quantified because of limitations in data and the inherent challenges in measuring water consumption. In this study, water consumption for irrigated agriculture was estimated across the U.S. to improve understanding of water budgets in different regions. Published data on cropping patterns and water application were used in conjunction with a national-scale analysis to estimate water application and crop water consumption using the SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) watershed model. Crop water consumption estimates were based on evapotranspiration, with supporting information on the diversity of crops, irrigated area, water quantity and source, and local weather conditions. Quantification of water consumption supports broader analyses of the food-energy-water nexus and allows evaluation of the efficiency of irrigation water use at different spatial scales. Focusing on 2005 data, it is estimated that 60% of water reported as withdrawn from various sources is applied to fields, indicating a potentially large and poorly understood conveyance loss that occurs in a small number of states. Of the field-applied irrigation water, roughly 65% is directly used by crops or is lost in the field, with large regional variations. This may be compared to consumption estimates in prior studies that ranged from 16% to 90%. Areas that dominate the national aggregate estimate of crop water consumption include California's Central and Imperial Valleys, areas overlying the Ogallala Aquifer in the central U.S., the Lower Colorado Basin, and the eastern part of the Pacific Northwest Basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of offshore wind energy requires accurate modeling of the wind resource, which can be depleted by wind farm wakes. Turbulence dissipation rate (ϵ) governs the accuracy of model predictions of hub‐height wind speed and the development and erosion of wakes. Here we assess the variability of turbulence kinetic energy and ϵ using 13 months of observations from a profiling lidar deployed on a platform off the Massachusetts coast. Offshore, ϵ is 2 orders of magnitude smaller than onshore, with a subtle diurnal cycle. Wind direction influences the annual cycle of turbulence, with larger values in winter when the wind flows from the land, and smaller values in summer, when the wind flows from open ocean. Because of the weak turbulence, wind plant wakes will be stronger and persist farther downwind in summer. Key Points: Strength and peturbulence dissipation rate offshore is smaller than onshore, with a weak diurnal cycleDissipation rate is larger when flow is from the land, usually in wintertime at this siteLarge wind veer is often associated with low turbulence at the site [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Hybrid LCA used to compare global warming potential of water refill stations to bottled water. • Several water consumption scenarios examined in four locations (Israel, USA, UK, and China). • GWP of water refill stations 2-6 times less than bottled water and most strongly influenced by electricity generation mix. Abstract Growing consumption of single-use bottled water has received criticism due to potentially adverse environmental outcomes. Networks of public-sphere water delivery stations have been proposed as a sustainable alternative for water consumption on-the-go, yet the life-cycle impacts of such stations are poorly understood. Here we evaluate the potential cumulative energy demand and climate change impacts of water delivered from a filtered water refill station under various consumption scenarios and provide a comparison to published results for bottled water. Using a hybrid life-cycle analysis framework employing physical and economic data, we model the water station's performance in four locations: Tel-Aviv, Israel; Miami Beach, Florida, USA; London, UK; and Shanghai, China. We find that the climate change impact of the station is two to six times lower than those of bottled water and that use phase electricity is the most influential factor in determining the station's environmental impact. We provide additional observations related to scaling up such a system and recommendations to realize further gains in eco-efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Natural/anthropogenic water connections among US watersheds were investigated. • Highly water-stressed areas may expand from 14% to 18% by 2070–2099. • Regional water connectivity could buffer the potential stress escalations. • Future changes may aggravate upstream-downstream water conflicts. Abstract Surface water supply for a watershed relies on local water generated from precipitation and water connections with other watersheds. These connections are confined by topography and infrastructure, and respond diversely to stressors such as climate change, population growth, increasing energy and water demands. This study presents an integrative simulation and evaluation framework that incorporates the natural and anthropogenic water connections (i.e., stream flows, inter-basin water transfers, water withdrawals and return flows) among the 2099 8-digit Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC-8) watersheds across the conterminous United States. The framework is then applied to investigate the potential impacts of changes in climate and water use on regional water availability and water stress (the ratio of demand to supply). Our projections suggest that highly water-stressed areas may expand from 14% to 18% and the stressed population would increase from 19% to 24% by 2070–2099. Climate-change mitigation practices (e.g., energy structure reform, technology innovation) could largely offset these trends by reducing demand and enhancing supply. At the watershed scale, the spatially inhomogeneous responses to future changes suggest that regional water connectivity could significantly buffer the potential stress escalations due to the redistribution of water resources and diverse changes in consumptive uses and water supplies in different source areas. However, the detrimental future changes (e.g., depleting river discharges, larger demands of water withdrawal) may aggravate conflicts over water rights among regions and challenge our current water infrastructure system. This study provides new insights into the critical role of regional water connectivity in water supply security, and highlights the increasing need for integrated monitoring and management of water resources at various spatial levels in a changing world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Today, increasing levels of water demand become a particularly serious challenge for many countries, especially since water is an essential element for production of transportation fuels. Unfortunately, no research efforts as of now have been directed specifically toward understanding the fundamental relationship between the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and water demand. This research aims to fill this knowledge gap by analyzing the water consumption and withdrawal impacts resulting from the increased usage of alternative vehicle technologies in the United States. 5 vehicle types - Internal Combustion Vehicles (ICVs), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV20, PHEV40) and Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) - are analyzed across 50 U.S. states with 3 different electricity generation mix profiles: the state-based average electricity generation mix, the state-based marginal electricity generation mix, and a hypothetical electricity generation mix consisting entirely of solar-powered charging stations. The well-to-wheel (WTW) life cycle analysis is used for the water footprint calculations. In worst case, BEVs may consume up to 70 times more water than ICVs. BEVs with solar charging have the lowest levels of water consumption and withdrawal and can reduce transportation water footprint by up to 97%. In most of the states, the marginal electricity generation mix has higher water consumption and withdrawal values than those of the average electricity generation mix. In particular, the authors suggest the use of BEVs with solar charging for states with the highest water-stressed areas (California (CA), Arizona (AZ), Nevada (NV), Florida (FL), etc.), and recommend the inclusion of incentives by federal and state governments for these states. Highlights • A well-to-wheel water footprint analysis is conducted for conventional and electric vehicles in USA. • Water consumption and withdrawal of BEVs are highly sensitive to regional differences. • The marginal electricity generation mix has higher water consumption and withdrawal values. • BEV with solar charging has the lowest levels of water consumption and withdrawal. • BEV with solar charging is suggested for the highest water-stressed states such as CA, AZ, NV and FL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing stress on the global water supply necessitates the measurement of water consumption as a sustainability metric to evaluate energy production, including the production of transportation fuels (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel) at petroleum refineries. This study estimated refinery water consumption for petroleum fuels by considering three typical refinery configurations (cracking, light coking, and heavy coking) that process different crude qualities (e.g., American Petroleum Institute Gravity (API) gravity and sulfur content). The results showed that refinery water consumption was 0.34, 0.44, and 0.47 bbl water/bbl crude (L water/L crude) for cracking, light coking, and heavy coking configurations, respectively. The water consumption for a specific refinery product was estimated using an energy allocation approach at the process unit level. The results indicated that gasoline production consumes the largest amount of water, 0.60–0.71 gal water/gal gasoline (0.60–0.71 L water/L gasoline), due to the energy-intensive (and thus water-intensive) processing of gasoline components (mainly sourced from alkylation, reformer, and fluid catalytic cracking units). In contrast, jet fuel production consumes the least water, 0.09 gal water/gal jet fuel, for all three refinery configurations, because it is sourced directly from the crude distillation unit with minimal post-treating. The consumption of diesel is most sensitive to refinery configuration with 0.20, 0.30, and 0.40 gal water/gal diesel (L water/L diesel) for cracking, light coking and heavy coking configurations, respectively. This is mainly because as configuration complexity increases to process heavier and sourer crudes, a sizable burden of hydrogen production from steam methane reforming unit is allocated to diesel fuel production (including diesel sulfur removal). The trend of water consumption associated with these refinery products is consistent with the energy consumption for their production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Differences in bottled v. tap water intake may provide insights into health disparities, like risk of dental caries and inadequate hydration. We examined differences in plain, tap and bottled water consumption among US adults by sociodemographic characteristics. Design: Cross-sectional analysis. We used 24 h dietary recall data to test differences in percentage consuming the water sources and mean intake between groups using Wald tests and multiple logistic and linear regression models. Setting: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2007–2014. Subjects: A nationally representative sample of 20 676 adults aged ≥ 20 years. Results: In 2011–2014, 81·4 (se 0·6) % of adults drank plain water (sum of tap and bottled), 55·2 (se 1·4) % drank tap water and 33·4 (se 1·4) % drank bottled water on a given day. Adjusting for covariates, non-Hispanic (NH) Black and Hispanic adults had 0·44 (95 % CI 0·37, 0·53) and 0·55 (95 % CI 0·45, 0·66) times the odds of consuming tap water, and consumed B= − 330 (se 45) ml and B= − 180 (se 45) ml less tap water than NH White adults, respectively. NH Black, Hispanic and adults born outside the fifty US states or Washington, DC had 2·20 (95 % CI 1·79, 2·69), 2·37 (95 % CI 1·91, 2·94) and 1·46 (95 % CI 1·19, 1·79) times the odds of consuming bottled water than their NH White and US-born counterparts. In 2007–2010, water filtration was associated with higher odds of drinking plain and tap water. Conclusions: While most US adults consumed plain water, the source (i.e. tap or bottled) and amount differed by race/Hispanic origin, nativity status and education. Water filters may increase tap water consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The food processing industry is one of the largest consumers of energy and water in the manufacturing sector. It is vital that conservation measures are taken to reduce the use of electricity, fuel, and water for producers to have long-term, sustainable growth. The Pacific Northwest (PNW) region includes some the largest food processers in the United States, particularly with products such as fruit and vegetable preserves, apples products, potato products, and milk. Energy and water consumption in PNW food processing facilities are quantified as well as techniques to increase efficiency and reduce waste. Mechanical drive systems and refrigeration consumes the most electricity in the industry and the implementation of energy management plans has the largest potential to save electricity in PNW facilities. Heating and cooling process needs are the largest consumers of energy in the food processing industry. Implementing cogeneration/trigeneration technology, replacing of older equipment, capturing waste heat, and reusing wastewater can have significant impacts on both energy and water consumption. Novel, emerging technologies such as membrane separation, high-pressure processing, microwave assist, ultrasound, pulsed high electric fields, ozone, and hydrogen/electricity generation have significant potential to benefit the food processing industry by increasing efficiency and allowing companies to stay competitive in an industry where sustainable practices are becoming increasingly important to the public. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electricity in the Southwestern United States is primarily generated with water intensive steam turbines. If energy demand continues to rise this will lead to a further rise in water demand. A comprehensive understanding of water consumption and withdrawal for utility scale generation of electricity is necessary before any improvements in the water efficiency of such systems in arid environments can be made. This study estimated and compared the water usage associated with thermoelectric generation (i.e., natural gas, coal), and solar energy, in the five driest Colorado River Basin states: Utah, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, and California. This study also examined and compared each state's Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) and how this might impact water savings. Results showed that each state's current RPS goals would reduce the water that is consumed by the generation of electricity. However, the amount of water savings will vary on a state by state basis. In order to reduce water consumption, replacing thermal electric generation with photovoltaic (PV) solar can be significant and should be encouraged. The amount of water saved will vary, however, depending on the state's choice of coal or natural gas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Model-based water quality assessments are an important informer of conservation and environmental policy in the U.S. The recently completed national scale Conservation Effects Assessment Project (CEAP) is being replicated using an improved model populated with new and higher resolution data. National assessments are particularly difficult as models must operate with both a very large spatial extent (the contiguous U.S.) while maintaining a level of granularity required to capture important small scale processes. In this research, we developed datasets to describe the hydrologic connectivity at the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 12-digit Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC-12) level. Connectivity between 86,000 HUC-12s as provided by the Watershed Boundary Dataset (WBD) was evaluated and corrected. We also detailed a method to resolve the highly detailed National Hydrography Dataset (NHD) stream segments within each HUC-12 into vastly simplified representative channel schemes suitable for use in the recently developed Soil andWater Assessment Tool + (SWAT+) model. This representative channel approach strikes a balance between computational complexity and accurate representation of the hydrologic system. These data will be tested in the upcoming CEAP II national assessment. Until then, all the WBD corrections and NHDPlus representative channel data are provided via the web for other researchers to evaluate and utilize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life cycle assessments of have been completed documenting the environmental sustainability of beef, but these studies have often focused on specific cattle production systems with an emphasis on global warming potential. A need exists for a national-scale full life cycle assessment of beef production through consumption in the United States. Process level simulation of archetypical cattle production systems throughout the nation were combined with information gathered for harvest, processing, retail, and consumption of beef to provide inventory data for a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment. A set of 18 environmental impact categories were quantified, and important sources of each were identified. In 13 of the categories, the major sources of impact were related to cattle production, and for 10 of these categories, cattle production and related upstream sources contributed more than half of the total impact. These categories were fine particulate matter, global warming, land use, mineral resource scarcity, ozone formation, stratospheric ozone depletion, terrestrial acidification, and water consumption. Categories where most of the impact occurred post farmgate were fossil resource scarcity, freshwater ecotoxicity, freshwater eutrophication, human carcinogenic toxicity, human non-carcinogenic toxicity, ionizing radiation, marine ecotoxicity, and terrestrial ecotoxicity. Mitigation strategies for reducing these environmental impacts are normally specific to the impact category. Because electricity use is an important contributor to many of the potential impacts throughout the full chain, reducing electricity use is an important mitigation strategy. We evaluated the sensitivity associated with greening of the electric grid in which the Northeast US power grid, which has a larger percentage of renewables, was used as the source of electricity for all systems. The impact remained constant or were reduced in 15 of the 18 impact categories including a 6% reduction in global warming and 22% reduction in particulate matter formation. Another major contributor to all impact categories was food loss and waste. A 50% reduction in food waste, primarily by the consumer, resulted in an across-the-board reduction of approximately 11% in each of the impact categories, which makes food waste reduction one of the most important strategies for improving the environmental sustainability of beef. This assessment provides a current baseline for evaluating mitigation strategies and measuring future improvements in sustainability for the U.S. beef industry. • a national baseline environmental profile for US beef production and consumption. • AsSessed full supply chain including quick- and full-serve restaurants and home use. • 160 archetypical cattle production systems across all 50 states were simulated. • 50% reduction in consumption food loss resulted in ∼11% in each impact category. • Average cradle-to-grave carbon footprint of beef produced and consumed is 42.7 kg CO 2e /kg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) water disclosures vary in content, leading to concern about the quality and extent of such disclosures. This paper employs formal concept analysis (FCA) to examine water reporting of selected companies in the US food and beverage industry that have followed the water guidelines set forth by the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) and in the disclosure guidelines of the CEO Water Mandate. Assessments of water consumption and water withdrawal were cited more often in our sample firms' CSR reports. FCA results also identify the major focus of our sample firms as setting sustainable water management goals and water quality strategy. Other important issues included leadership, partnership, and employee involvement. While the FCA text mining tool is demonstrated using water-related behaviors here, it can be used to identify continuous improvement opportunities and examine many other issues of interest to corporate stakeholders in other industries and communities worldwide. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Latinos consume more sugary drinks and less water than other demographic groups. Our objective was to understand beverage choice motivations and test promotional concepts that can encourage Central American Latino urban youth to drink more water. Two rounds of focus group discussions were conducted (n = 10 focus groups, 61 participants, 6–18 years old). Data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using inductive and deductive coding approaches. Youth motivations for drinking water were shaped by level of thirst, weather, energy, and perceptions of health benefits. Youth were discouraged from drinking water due to its taste and perceptions of the safety and cleanliness of tap water. Youth beverage preference depended on what their friends were drinking. Availability of water versus other beverages at home and other settings influenced their choice. Promotional materials that included mixed language, informative messages about the benefits of drinking water, and celebrities or athletes who were active, energized, and drinking water were preferred. A promotional campaign to increase water consumption among these Latino youth should include bicultural messages to underscore the power of water to quench true thirst, highlight the health benefits of drinking water, and address the safety of tap water. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article examines water regulation considering the Fifth Amendment of U.S. Constitution and assess federal and state courts' interpretations to determine the limitations of state water conservation efforts. Topics discussed include history of water rights in the West and the persistence of waste and non-conservation by the prior appropriation doctrine; federal and state court decisions on the Fifth Amendment regarding water takings; and power of states to regulate water use.

The allocation of the water resources of Southeastern United States have given rise to inter-state political conflicts for decades. The limited water resource are not only required to satisfy the demand of rapidly growing urban areas, but also the power industry, recreational needs and the environment. Although water resource variability has been attributed to various teleconnections, knowledge of long-term water resource availability is limited. In this paper historical (1952–2014) precipitation and streamflow data from 18 basins in southeast United States are analyzed for long-term changes in the hydroclimatology, possibly brought by urbanization, climate change and/or changed precipitation patterns. A Pettitt test indicates a change in the precipitation-runoff relationship in the late 1990s. After the shift, basin records indicate decreased precipitation storage and consequently increased streamflow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article considers how water consumption in the United States is and should be taxed. It reviews the few federal and state tax code provisions that directly target water use and the somewhat larger number of provisions with indirect implications for water policy. It also draws upon existing literature on tax policy, water law, and water economics to evaluate whether taxation of water consumption makes sense. That analysis leads to two key conclusions. First, although provisions of tax law affect water use, and although some provisions undercut key policy goals of water law, they do so only to a modest extent. The intersections between the two fields are limited and largely inadvertent. Second, the interconnections between the fields should be stronger; water use should be taxed. The reasons are similar to commonly-cited justifications for carbon taxes and other so-called Pigouvian taxes: taxation would encourage more efficient water consumption, decreasing the negative environmental and energy consequences of water overuse and alleviating conflict among competing users. Taxation also would raise revenue, which could fund badly-needed water infrastructure and governance or reduce the need to tax more socially desirable activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses water use impacts of agriculture, developing a spatially explicit approach tracing the location of water use and water scarcity related to feed production, transport, and livestock, tracking uncertainties and illustrating the approach with a case study on dairy production in the United States. This approach was developed as a step to bring spatially variable production and impacts into a process-based life cycle assessment (LCA) context. As water resources and demands are spatially variable, it is critical to take into account the location of activities to properly understand the impacts of water use, accounting for each of the main feeds for milk production. At the crop production level, the example of corn grain shows that 59% of water stress associated with corn grain production in the United States is located in Nebraska, a state with moderate water stress and moderate corn production (11%). At the level of milk production, four watersheds account for 78% of the national water stress impact, as these areas have high milk production and relatively high water stress; it is the production of local silage and hay crops that drives water consumption in these areas. By considering uncertainty in both inventory data and impact characterization factors, we demonstrate that spatial variability may be larger than uncertainty, and that not systematically accounting for the two can lead to artificially high uncertainty. Using a nonspatial approach in a spatially variable setting can result in a significant underestimation or overestimation of water impacts. The approach demonstrated here could be applied to other spatially variable processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While basic access to clean water is critical, another important issue is the affordability of water access for people around the globe. Prior international work has highlighted that a large proportion of consumers could not afford water if priced at full cost recovery levels. Given growing concern about affordability issues due to rising water rates, and a comparative lack of work on affordability in the developed world, as compared to the developing world, more work is needed in developed countries to understand the extent of this issue in terms of the number of households and persons impacted. To address this need, this paper assesses potential affordability issues for households in the United States using the U.S. EPA’s 4.5% affordability criteria for combined water and wastewater services. Analytical results from this paper highlight high-risk and at-risk households for water poverty or unaffordable water services. Many of these households are clustered in pockets of water poverty within counties, which is a concern for individual utility providers servicing a large proportion of customers with a financial inability to pay for water services. Results also highlight that while water rates remain comparatively affordable for many U.S. households, this trend will not continue in the future. If water rates rise at projected amounts over the next five years, conservative projections estimate that the percentage of U.S. households who will find water bills unaffordable could triple from 11.9% to 35.6%. This is a concern due to the cascading economic impacts associated with widespread affordability issues; these issues mean that utility providers could have fewer customers over which to spread the large fixed costs of water service. Unaffordable water bills also impact customers for whom water services are affordable via higher water rates to recover the costs of services that go unpaid by lower income households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The water footprint of the urban environment is not limited to direct water consumption (i.e., municipal supplies); embedded water in imported resources, or virtual water transfers, provides an additional component of the urban water footprint. Using empirical data, our analysis extends traditional urban water footprinting analysis to quantify both direct and indirect urban resources for the United States. We determine direct water volumes and their embedded energy through open records requests of water utilities. The indirect component of the urban water footprint includes water indirectly consumed through energy and food, relating to the food-energy-water nexus. We comprehensively quantify the indirect water footprint for 74 metropolitan statistical areas through the combination of various databases, including the Commodity Flow Survey of the U.S. Census Bureau, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Water Footprint Network, and the Energy Information Administration. We then analyze spatial heterogeneity in both direct and indirect water footprints, determining the average urban water footprint in the United States to be 1.64 million gallons of water per person per year [6200 m3/person/yr or 17,000 L/person/d], dominated by indirect water. Additionally, our study of the urban water cycle extends beyond considering only water resources to include embedded energy and equivalent carbon dioxide emissions. The inclusion of multiple sectors of the urban water cycle and their underlying processes provides important insights to the overall urban environment, the interdependencies of the food-energy-water nexus, and water resource sustainability. Our results provide opportunities for benchmarking the urban energy-water nexus, water footprints, and climate change potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS, gained significant public and regulatory attention due to widespread contamination and health harms associated with exposure. Ingestion of PFAS from contaminated food and water results in the accumulation of PFAS in the body and is considered a key route of human exposure. Here we calculate the potential contribution of PFOS from consumption of locally caught freshwater fish to serum levels. We analyzed data for over 500 composite samples of fish fillets collected across the United States from 2013 to 2015 under the U.S. EPA's monitoring programs, the National Rivers and Streams Assessment and the Great Lakes Human Health Fish Fillet Tissue Study. The two datasets indicate that an individual's consumption of freshwater fish is potentially a significant source of exposure to perfluorinated compounds. The median level of total targeted PFAS in fish fillets from rivers and streams across the United States was 9,500 ng/kg, with a median level of 11,800 ng/kg in the Great Lakes. PFOS was the largest contributor to total PFAS levels, averaging 74% of the total. The median levels of total detected PFAS in freshwater fish across the United States were 278 times higher than levels in commercially relevant fish tested by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2019–2022. Exposure assessment suggests that a single serving of freshwater fish per year with the median level of PFAS as detected by the U.S. EPA monitoring programs translates into a significant increase of PFOS levels in blood serum. The exposure to chemical pollutants in freshwater fish across the United States is a case of environmental injustice that especially affects communities that depend on fishing for sustenance and for traditional cultural practices. Identifying and reducing sources of PFAS exposure is an urgent public health priority. [Display omitted] • PFAS are widely detected in freshwater fish across the United States. • U.S. EPA fish testing in 2013–2015 had a median PFAS concentration of 11,800 ng/kg. • Even infrequent freshwater fish consumption can increase serum PFOS levels. • One fish serving can be equivalent to drinking water for a month at 48 ppt PFOS. • Fish consumption advice regarding PFAS is inconsistent or absent in the U.S. states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Buildings in the United States are responsible for 72% of the nation’s electricity consumption, 39% of energy consumption, 39% of carbon dioxide emissions, and 13% of potable water consumption. These significant energy and water consumptions and their carbon emissions contribute to global warming, ozone depletion, and air pollution. To reduce these negative impacts of buildings and improve their economic performance, there is an increasing demand for integrating sustainable measures in public buildings such as energy-efficient lighting; motion sensors for interior lighting; motion sensors for lighting of vending machines; motion sensors for exhaust fans; solar daylight tubes; energy-efficient HVAC systems; thermal-pane glass; vestibule entrances; energy-efficient hand dryers; solar photovoltaic systems; and water-saving toilets and urinals. Despite the recent increase in the availability of these sustainable building measures and technologies, there is a pressing need to analyze the economic and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission effects of implementing these measures in existing buildings. This paper presents an economic and GHG emission analysis of implementing various sustainable measures in six highway rest area buildings. The economic analysis was performed based on the initial upgrade costs, maintenance costs, operational costs, energy and water savings, discount rate, and escalation in energy rates. The GHG analysis was conducted based on the generated building emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane. The findings of the conducted economic and GHG emission analysis showed promising results with feasible implementation and return on investment for various sustainable-building measures. In addition, the implementation of all the analyzed measures in all rest area buildings simultaneously showed promising return on investment with payback periods ranging from 6.9 to 11.3 years. The findings of this research paper can aid decision-makers and building owners to estimate the costs and benefits for implementing various sustainable-building measures in public buildings, as well as to prioritize the implementation of these measures based on their available budgets, reduction in operational costs and GHG emissions, and payback periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Bottled water (BW) consumption increasing, with public-supply drinking water concerns. • Directly comparable, broad contaminant-mixture exposure assessments lacking for BW. • 465 organics/53 inorganics/14 microbial indicators/1 bioactivity assessed in 30 BW. • 48 inorganics/45 organics were detected, and benchmark screening levels were exceeded. • Contaminant mixtures of potential human-health concern also common in BW. Bottled water (BW) consumption in the United States and globally has increased amidst heightened concern about environmental contaminant exposures and health risks in drinking water supplies, despite a paucity of directly comparable, environmentally-relevant contaminant exposure data for BW. This study provides insight into exposures and cumulative risks to human health from inorganic/organic/microbial contaminants in BW. BW from 30 total domestic US (23) and imported (7) sources, including purified tapwater (7) and spring water (23), were analyzed for 3 field parameters, 53 inorganics, 465 organics, 14 microbial metrics, and in vitro estrogen receptor (ER) bioactivity. Health-benchmark-weighted cumulative hazard indices and ratios of organic-contaminant in vitro exposure-activity cutoffs were assessed for detected regulated and unregulated inorganic and organic contaminants. 48 inorganics and 45 organics were detected in sampled BW. No enforceable chemical quality standards were exceeded, but several inorganic and organic contaminants with maximum contaminant level goal(s) (MCLG) of zero (no known safe level of exposure to vulnerable sub-populations) were detected. Among these, arsenic, lead, and uranium were detected in 67 %, 17 %, and 57 % of BW, respectively, almost exclusively in spring-sourced samples not treated by advanced filtration. Organic MCLG exceedances included frequent detections of disinfection byproducts (DBP) in tapwater-sourced BW and sporadic detections of DBP and volatile organic chemicals in BW sourced from tapwater and springs. Precautionary health-based screening levels were exceeded frequently and attributed primarily to DBP in tapwater-sourced BW and co-occurring inorganic and organic contaminants in spring-sourced BW. The results indicate that simultaneous exposures to multiple drinking-water contaminants of potential human-health concern are common in BW. Improved understandings of human exposures based on more environmentally realistic and directly comparable point-of-use exposure characterizations, like this BW study, are essential to public health because drinking water is a biological necessity and, consequently, a high-vulnerability vector for human contaminant exposures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the relationship between water and energy systems is important for effective management of both resources. Improved data availability has made more comprehensive modeling of hydropower and its water use possible, even as droughts and climate change have made questions about reservoir evaporation responsiveness more timely. This work makes three main contributions: first, it presents national and regional estimates of gross evaporation and evaporation net of evapotranspiration from local land cover (“net evaporation”) for U.S. hydroelectricity, arguing that net evaporation is more consistent with other measures of energy-related water intensity; second, it introduces and validates a method for estimating system-wide evaporation based on primary purpose allocation that reduces data requirements by two orders of magnitude; and third, it makes available for public use a full Penman–Monteith model with multiple built-in sensitivity analyses. Based on this model, the U.S. hydropower system consumes an estimated average of 1.7 m 3 of net freshwater per GJ electricity produced (11 m 3 /GJ gross). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a renewable alternative to petroleum diesel, biodiesel has been widely used in the US and the world. However, its potential impact on water resources has not been much evaluated. This study investigates water consumption from the biodiesel process, which includes three stages: soybean irrigation, soybean-to-soybean oil processing, and biodiesel manufacturing, at both national and state levels. Mass-based allocation is performed and water consumption at the three stages is obtained on the basis of million gallons per year and gallon water per gallon biodiesel (gal/gal). The normalized water consumption (water intensity) of the irrigation, oil processing, and biodiesel production stages are 61.78, 0.17, and 0.31 gal/gal, respectively. The resulting total normalized water consumption is 62.26 gal/gal for the biodiesel process which is much lower than those reported in existing literature. It is shown that water consumption from the three stages varies significantly from state to state, which warrants the necessity of state-level water consumption analysis for better decision making in water resources management. Water consumption in potentially water-stressed states is also investigated and results show that currently these states represent 1.6 % of total water consumption associated with biodiesel production, 0.46 % of soybean harvest, and 27.61 % of biodiesel production capacity in the US. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]