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This paper provides new evidence on educational inequality and reviews the literature on the causes and consequences of unequal education. We document large achievement gaps between children from different socio-economic backgrounds, show how patterns of educational inequality vary across countries, time, and generations, and establish a link between educational inequality and social mobility. We interpret this evidence from the perspective of economic models of skill acquisition and investment in human capital. The models account for different channels underlying unequal education and highlight how endogenous responses in parents' and children's educational investments generate a close link between economic inequality and educational inequality. Given concerns over the extended school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic, we also summarize early evidence on the impact of the pandemic on children's education and on possible long-run repercussions for educational inequality.

At a time when the Mexican and United States governments are looking for an opportunity to diversify the bilateral agenda and strengthen the economic relationship, there is an urgent need to focus on the long term challenges of competitiveness and human capital in the region. Questions of infrastructure, standards, border procedures and energy are all crucial to this equation, but an emerging issue that has been little discussed in the public sphere is that of educational cooperation. Several experts and government officials have long recognized this as a potential growth area in the bilateral relationship, but there are now greater opportunities than ever to further develop educational collaboration. This report looks at: (1) The Educational Context in the Two Countries; (2) The challenge facing Mexico-U.S. educational exchanges; and (3) Improving the system of Mexico-U.S. student exchanges.

This paper studies the contribution of parental influence in accounting for cross-country gaps in human capital achievements. We argue that the cross-country variation in unobserved parental characteristics is at least as important as the one in commonly used observable proxies of parental socio-economic background. We infer this through an indirect empirical approach, based on the comparison of the school performance of second-generation immigrants. We document that, within the same host country or even the same school, students whose parents come from high-scoring countries in the PISA test do better than their peers with similar socioeconomic backgrounds. Differential selection into emigration does not explain this finding. The result is larger when parents have little education and have recently emigrated, suggesting the importance of country-specific cultural traits that parents progressively lose as they integrate in the new host country, rather than of an intergenerational transmission of education quality. Unobserved parental characteristics account for about 15% of the cross-country variance in test scores, roughly doubling the overall contribution of parental influence.

The OECD Career Readiness project makes use of quantitative evidence to identify how teenage career-related activities and attitudes are linked with better adult employment outcomes. Review of multiple national longitudinal datasets confirms that teenage experiences of the workplace through part-time working and volunteering are routinely associated with better prospects in work during adulthood. While the evidence base is much weaker, it is also likely that students who undertake workplace placements through their schools can have much to gain. This policy brief draws on evidence from longitudinal studies and beyond to explore the following questions: Why is it important for secondary school students to have first-hand experience of work? What difference does workplace experience make? And how can schools and education systems best optimise its benefits?

High school graduation rates have increased dramatically in the past two decades. Some skepticism has arisen, however, because of the confluence of the graduation rise and the starts of high-stakes accountability for graduation rates with "No Child Left Behind" (NCLB). In this study we provide some of the first evidence about the role of accountability versus strategic behavior, especially the degree to which the recent graduation rate rise represents increased human capital. First, using national DD [difference-in-differences] analysis of within-state, cross-district variation in proximity to state graduation rate thresholds, we confirm that NCLB accountability increased graduation rates. However, we find limited evidence that this is due to strategic behavior. To test for lowering of graduation standards, we examined graduation rates in states with and without graduation exams and trends in GEDs [General Educational Developments]; neither analysis suggests that the graduation rate rise is due to strategic behavior. We also examined the effects of "credit recovery" courses using Louisiana micro data; while our results suggest an increase in credit recovery, consistent with some lowering of standards, the size of the effect is not nearly enough to explain the rise in graduation rates. Finally, we examine other forms of strategic behavior by schools, though these can only explain inflation of school/district-level graduation rates, not rational rates. Overall, the evidence suggests that the rise in the national graduation rates reflects some strategic behavior, but also a substantial increase in the nation's stock of human capital. Graduation accountability was a key contributor. [Additional funding was provided by the Tulane University Murphy Institute and School of Liberal Arts, Department of Economics.]

States are striving to support the expansion of technology tools and resources in K-12 education through state policies, programs, and funding in order to provide digital learning opportunities for all students. This paper highlights examples of states with policies in support of five key areas: (1) innovative funding streams and policy; (2) digital content; (3) human capacity; (4) network infrastructure; and (5) data management and privacy. While there has been progress toward digital learning nationwide, several states have emerged as leaders in embracing digital learning via state policies and practices in all five areas mentioned above: Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, North Carolina, and Utah. This report also highlights other states with significant progress in at least one of the specific five areas. Some critical areas for consideration that emerged include: (1) state investment in funding and policy; (2) digital content; (3) development of human capacity; (4) systemic approach to networks and infrastructure; and (5) student data and privacy. Leadership at the state level is paramount. Without strong leaders crafting a vision, which includes all five focus areas described in this report, statewide progress toward digital learning is difficult. As policymakers consider investments in technological tools and resources, they should also consider their broader vision for digital learning for their students. Contains endnotes.

This white paper analyzes the potential effects of requiring income-driven repayment for all federal loans as well as relying on paycheck withholding for loan payments, with particular attention to the implications for low-income students and families. The Institute for College Access & Success (TICAS) also examines the relevance and evolution of mandatory IDR ["income-driven repayment"] systems in Australia and the United Kingdom, and the paper includes specific recommendations to streamline and improve student loan repayment options in the United States. Two appendices are included: (1) Citation List of Figure 2: "Key Comparisons of IDR Systems and Context: U.S., U.K., and Australia"; and (2) Borrower Example Details.

Increasing numbers of recent college graduates are ending up in relatively low-skilled jobs that, historically, have gone to those with lower levels of educational attainment. This study examines this phenomenon in some detail, concluding: (1) About 48 percent of employed U.S. college graduates are in jobs that the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) suggests requires less than a four-year college education; (2) The proportion of overeducated workers in occupations appears to have grown substantially; in 1970, fewer than one percent of taxi drivers and two percent of firefighters had college degrees, while now more than 15 percent do in both jobs; (3) About five million college graduates are in jobs the BLS says require less than a high-school education; (4) Comparing average college and high-school earnings is highly misleading as a guide for vocational success, given high college-dropout rates and the fact that overproduction of college graduates lowers recent graduate earnings relative to those graduating earlier; (5) Not all colleges are equal: Typical graduates of elite private schools make more than graduates of flagship state universities, but those graduates do much better than those attending relatively non-selective institutions; (6) Not all majors are equal: Engineering and economics graduates, for example, typically earn almost double what social work and education graduates receive by mid-career; (7) Past and projected future growth in college enrollments and the number of graduates exceeds the actual or projected growth in high-skilled jobs, explaining the development of the underemployment problem and its probable worsening in future years; and (8) Rising college costs and perceived declines in economic benefits may well lead to declining enrollments and market share for traditional schools and the development of new methods of certifying occupation competence. (Contains 12 figures, 4 tables, and 65 notes.) [This paper was written with the assistance of Anthony Hennen, Harrison Cummins, Daniel Garrett, Joseph Hartge, and Nicholas Wetzel.]

Research shows that an effective teacher is key to student success. But determining what evidence best reflects teacher effectiveness and how this information can be used to improve the quality of teaching are among the significant issues facing public education today. The impetus for meaningful teacher evaluation reform from many sectors set the stage for the major changes the nation is now witnessing in the direction and scope of teacher performance evaluation. Dynamic reforms effecting teacher evaluation and support are now happening in states and school districts. These reforms are inspired in part by the U.S. Department of Education's competitive grant programs, including Race to the Top, which require new standards and assessments in public schools, data systems capable of measuring student growth, and human capital systems designed to recruit, develop, and retain effective teachers. This effort is matched by recent priorities of the Teacher Incentive Fund supporting district-wide evaluation systems that reward teacher success. The Education Department's decision to provide waivers from key provisions of or flexibility within the Elementary and Secondary Education Act--also known as No Child Left Behind--offers a further boost and a framework for states to make these long overdue reforms in a coherent way. Many states are now actively building or implementing educator workforce systems with meaningful evaluation and support systems that are linked to improvements in classroom practices and student achievement. The focus of this report is on one piece of this very large set of transformations: the multiple measures and multiple methods used in new teacher evaluation systems, including the weighting of these measures, to determine a composite score of teacher effectiveness. The data source for this analysis is the plans of 23 second-round waiver applicants approved by the U.S. Department of Education as of August 2012. These include the plans received and approved for Arizona, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. The review of these various reform plans indicates that the design and implementation of new systems of evaluation and support are truly works in progress. It's clear that this work will be an iterative process and that it should be open to review and adjustment as new research and the results of pilot implementations surface. For now, the state efforts and the waiver process both represent a rich laboratory of exploration and reform that bears watching for lessons to be learned, as well as for necessary corrections to be made. A few findings have already emerged from this initial review. They include the following: (1) This is hard work that is being approached differently by states while they implement multiple reforms; (2) Measures used to assess educator effectiveness are diverse and cannot be captured by only one or two indicators; (3) States are expanding the measures used to determine teacher effectiveness for nontested grades and subjects; (4) Systems have diverse purposes; and (5) Successful systems need an infrastructure of support. Policy recommendations are offered. (Contains 4 figures, 1 table, and 73 endnotes.)

Increasing college attainment is an urgent national need--a fact that is being acknowledged by policymakers, economists and labor experts at every level. They agree that, in order for the United States to sustain the economic recovery and assure long-term growth and social stability, the nation's educational attainment rate must improve steadily and significantly in coming years. That's why so many experts and organizations have embraced what Lumina Foundation calls the Big Goal, or Goal 2025--that, by the year 2025, 60 percent of Americans have a high-quality postsecondary credential. Lumina regularly tracks progress toward Goal 2025 in its signature report, "A Stronger Nation through Higher Education". Since the first issue of "Stronger Nation" in 2009, Lumina researchers have included data on educational attainment at the national, state and county levels. Almost from the beginning, however, they have been asked for data on higher education attainment levels in cities and metropolitan areas. Metro-level leaders have been some of the most passionate early adopters of the "Stronger Nation" reports. That is also why, for the first time, the most recent issue of "Stronger Nation" (March 2012) provides data that will help cities and metro regions understand where they stand educationally and develop strategies to drive educational attainment. This policy brief is excerpted from that report. [For the full report, "A Stronger Nation through Higher Education: How and Why Americans Must Achieve a Big Goal for College Attainment. A Special Report from Lumina Foundation," see ED531139.]

America faces many challenges in working together to restore the promise of economic growth and security for the country, U.S. families and the American worker. The challenges are both real and serious. Despite hopeful signs of economic recovery, America remains mired in the deepest jobs crisis since the 1930s. One out of every 12 Americans who are willing and able to work cannot find a job. Approximately 13 million Americans remain unemployed. Frustrated and discouraged, millions more have simply given up looking for work altogether. To be sure, the severe job losses experienced during the depths of the 2007-2009 recession have ended, and the unemployment rate fell from 9.4 percent in December 2010 to 8.5 percent in December 2011. But vigorous and sustained job creation has not returned at the level required to put America back to work, and the numbers of long-term unemployed remain at record levels. The CEOs of Business Roundtable (BRT) have a plan to revitalize U.S. economic growth and job creation. They believe that America's business leaders have an obligation to bring their real-world experience on economic matters to public policy, especially in a time of widespread joblessness and economic distress. Job creation depends on economic growth, which cannot occur unless businesses are free to innovate, invest and grow. "Taking Action for America" is a comprehensive plan to jump-start new business investment and knock down barriers to economic growth. It includes pragmatic, actionable recommendations organized into three broad categories: (1) American Global Leadership, which must be secured through: (a) sound fiscal policy; (b) smarter regulation; and (c) competitive taxation; (2) American Advantages, which depend on: (a) open markets for international trade and investment; (b) reliable, affordable energy; (c) protecting U.S. technology assets with effective cybersecurity; and (d) contributions of highly educated world talent; and (3) American Workers and Families, who deserve policies that promote: (a) a skilled, prepared workforce; (b) affordable, quality health care; and (c) stable policies that ensure retirement security. Individual sections contain endnotes.

The Committee for Economic Development (CED) has a decades-old commitment to quality early childhood education. CED Trustees have always been in the forefront of the effort to promote early learning and development for all children. Over recent years, the case for investment in the early years of childhood has become stronger and more urgent. Scholars from several disciplines have learned more in fields that range from the first stages of development of the brain to the demonstrable life-long consequences of past high-quality investments in young children. Accordingly, the Subcommittee on Early Childhood Education reconvened to accumulate this knowledge, and to explain it to the newest generations of business leaders. CED continues to believe that these human investments are among the most important that the nation can make, and that the business community should take the lead in making this case to both policymakers and the public at large. (Contains 3 figures and 74 endnotes.)

Graduate education in the United States plays a critical role in the success of the U.S. workforce and economy, attracting and producing influential researchers, innovators, and leaders. U.S. graduate schools are the environments in which students acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in the global economy and solve problems of national and global scope. The link between graduate education and American prosperity has never been stronger than it is today. But little is known at the granular level about what our graduates do, how their work life progresses, and how well the preparation they receive equips them for the careers they pursue. To ensure that a diverse, talented workforce supports the future success of the U.S. economy and society, individuals must understand current pathways through graduate school into careers as well as emerging employment trends and opportunities. The Commission on Pathways Through Graduate School and Into Careers explored these pathways by examining the views of groups that directly observe and experience this journey--students, universities, and employers. The perspectives of these groups offer an unprecedented opportunity to better understand what these stakeholders seek, where they find success, and where their needs and goals remain unmet. [For the full report, "Pathways through Graduate School and into Careers," see ED531249.]

Education is the key to American competitiveness and a strong economy, and continued federal investment in education is needed in order to support improvements in student achievement and put American economy on the path to sustained growth. The United States must continue to invest in education in order to create a system that is more equitable and that produces American students who are more competitive in the global marketplace for talent. Investment in education makes intuitive sense to the American people, but in this tough budgetary climate, it seems that every public investment is on the table to be cut. This paper discusses six reasons why continued federal investment in education should be a no-brainer as the congressional super committee negotiates this fall: (1) Global competitiveness; (2) Ensuring all students reach high standards of achievement; (3) Economic returns; (4) Jobs; (5) Savings elsewhere; and (6) Path to the middle class. Of course, investing in education isn't going to increase student achievement by itself. It matters how that money is spent, and now more than ever it is important to ensure money is spent fairly, efficiently, and effectively. Here are a couple of key principles to follow: (1) Spend scarce federal money where it is most needed; and (2) Education funding should be efficient and effective, emphasizing returns on investment. The author concludes that investment in education is a social and economic imperative, and efficient and effective federal education spending must be protected in this fall's super committee negotiations. (Contains 35 endnotes.)

Chicago has a dynamic history of embracing change, evolving from an agricultural and commercial hub to the steel powerhouse that would undergird America's industrial revolution. The "City of Big Shoulders" now bears a sizeable burden, one that again requires it to embrace change. The metro area must shift to an economy built on knowledge industries and high-tech firms, relying on a dramatically shifting labor force that lacks the versatile skills demanded by emerging industries. Latinos were three of every five new entrants to the region's labor force over the past decade. Most have roots in Chicago, but many remain poorly educated. If current trends continue, many of the younger generation are bound for low-paying, semi-skilled jobs at best, entering the workforce with neither the human capital nor cultural connections that will boost the local economy's productivity or attract cutting-edge firms. Eager Latino workers are flooding a metro labor force that may reflect stagnant productivity and fail to provide the upward mobility. This threatens to dampen Chicago's economic vitality. This brief presents new research that illustrates how both Mexican immigrants and many of their US-born counterparts--Latinos of Mexican origin--are overrepresented in low-skilled, low-pay manufacturing, food service, and construction industries. Given the grim economic implications of a regional economy built on the shoulders of a low-skilled workforce, the brief calls for investment in education--particularly early childhood education--as a critical means to build a well-equipped, competitive workforce. (Contains 5 charts and 28 endnotes.) [Based on a technical paper written by John Koval.]

Nationally, children in immigrant families (defined as a child who is foreign-born or, in most cases, U.S.-born with at least one foreign-born parent) represent the fastest-growing segment of the U.S. child population. In 2009, nearly one in four U.S. children lived in an immigrant family--more than 17 million children nationwide. Although Colorado ranks behind other Western states like Arizona and Texas in the percentage of children who live in immigrant families, the number of children in the state with at least one immigrant parent is not insignificant; more than one-fifth of Colorado's 1.2 million children lived in immigrant families in 2009. The growing number of children in immigrant families is taking place amidst a broader demographic shift unfolding in Colorado and across the nation, as U.S. children become increasingly diverse and children of color make up an ever-larger share of the child population. The Colorado Children's Campaign works to ensure that Colorado is a great place to be a kid, for all kids. Unfortunately, there are wide gaps in well-being between many of the state's children in immigrant families and their counterparts in U.S.-born families. "Investing in a Bright Future for All of Colorado's Kids" takes a comprehensive look at key indicators of child well-being to assess how Colorado's 254,000 children in immigrant families are faring in areas such as economic well-being, family structure and English proficiency. While the state's immigrant families are strong in many regards, a number of the report's findings point to the need for increased supports for many children in immigrant families in Colorado. (Contains 49 endnotes and 3 footnotes.)

This paper estimates historical measures of equality in the distribution of education in the United States by age group and sex. Using educational attainment data for the population, the EduGini measure indicates that educational inequality in the U.S. declined significantly between 1950 and 2009. Reductions in educational inequality were more profound during the first three decades of the study than the last three, with the degree of inequality remaining relatively constant since the early 1990s. Educational inequality has historically been higher among males than females, but recently the gap has narrowed substantially. Older age groups have experienced greater declines in educational inequality compared to younger age groups. Research extensions of the data presented in this paper are discussed. Appended are: (1) Full Methodology; (2) EduGini by Year, Age Group; (3) Male EduGini by Year, Age Group; and (4) Female EduGini by Year, Age Group. (Contains 5 figures, 3 tables, 20 footnotes.)

Improving college degree attainment is essential as the United States seeks to remain economically competitive in a globalized marketplace. As the economy continues to evolve and become increasingly more complex, it is critical that our education system provides our youth with the skills, ingenuity, and critical thinking abilities that can stimulate and maintain the economy as we advance in the 21st century. Understanding this need, President Obama has identified education as a key component of his Administration's agenda. In the President's February 24, 2009 address to a Joint Session of Congress, he announced his goal for the United States to become once again the nation with the largest percentage of college-educated citizens in the world. This goal will require raising the percentage of Americans ages 25 to 64 with a college degree from 41.2% to nearly 60.0% (OECD, 2010). However, at the current pace, projections using the U.S. Census Bureau's Current Population Survey suggest that only 46.4% of Americans in the target age group will have earned a college degree by 2020, leaving the nation nearly 24 million degrees shy of the 60% target rate. The Pell Institute for the Study of Opportunity in Higher Education argues in this brief that income-based inequality in educational attainment is a central obstacle to achieving the 2020 goal and that decreasing income-based attainment gaps must become a central focus of federal education policy. Additionally, we offer four federal policy recommendations that address the challenge of income-based disparities in degree attainment. (Contains 5 figures and 6 footnotes.)

With support from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the National Center for Higher Education Management Systems (NCHEMS) is engaged in a two year project centered on state policies that foster student progression and success in the "adult re-entry pipeline." The adult re-entry pipeline consists of the many alternative pathways to obtain a postsecondary credential for individuals who did not complete high school and immediately go on to successful college-level study. Prominent components of this population include those young adults (aged 25-34) who never finished high school, those who began postsecondary study but for various reasons did not finish, and those who never enrolled in postsecondary study. Established state policies targeted at access and success are centered largely on the traditional path to college. This path focuses on 18-year-old high school graduates who enter postsecondary study within eight or nine months after earning a high school diploma. Prominent among these policies are college awareness and access programs, targeted financial aid, "bridge" programs such as early college high schools, and college-skills development programs. In a growing number of states, such policies are aligned and coordinated in the context of an intentional "P-16" strategy for improving student success. In contrast, state policies aimed at promoting student success in the adult re-entry pipeline tend to be fragmentary and not systematically aligned. Probably more important from a national perspective, they are not well documented or are unknown altogether. The purpose of this report is to attempt to fill this void by presenting results of a fifty-state inventory of state policies and practices designed to foster greater entry into and flow through the state re-entry pipeline. After a brief discussion of how the survey was conducted, major sections of the report examine the scope and definition of responsibility for this function, fiscal and financial policies and practices, programmatic policies and practices, and policies and practices related to information dissemination and access. Appended are: (1) Letter (2) Inventory on State Policies and Practices Affecting Young Adult Attainment Project on the Adult Re-Entry Pipeline Supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; and (3) State reports. (Contains 4 tables and 9 footnotes.)

At the 2009 meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education's Council on Public Policy in Higher Education, Pat Callan, President of the National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, asserted that Master's Colleges and Universities (MCUs) are the most understudied sector of American higher education. This paper described how the 265 public MCUs, which in 2006-7 served 2.5 million students, are for the first time geographically classified in a manner consistent with the 2005 Basic Classification of Associate's Colleges published by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Carnegie's 2005 edition, the first to classify Associate's Colleges, created urban, suburban, and rural sub-classifications that reflect the importance of place in the assignment by states of community college service delivery areas. The proposed public MCU classification is applied using National Center for Education Statistics data on enrollments, institutions, and student financial aid. This is followed by a brief discussion on the use of this geographically-based classification of public MCUs to bring greater precision to postsecondary research, policy, and practice. (Contains 6 tables and 1 footnote.)

States should use this roadmap to identify and leverage federal funding sources for data-related activities. This roadmap presents such opportunities for FY 2011, and provides guidance on some of the ways the funds may be used.

"Investing in Kids: Early Childhood Programs and Local Economic Development," a 2011 book by Timothy Bartik, Senior Economist at the W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, provides a new evidence-based approach for effective economic development. This approach is designed to support business growth and job creation by improving worker productivity and earnings both today and in the years and decades to come. In his book, Bartik argues for a comprehensive model that employs a combination of programs--well-designed business incentives and high-quality early childhood services open to all children--to build short- and long-term human capital. By supplementing a research driven package of business incentives with investments in early childhood programs, economic development agencies can meet business' immediate need for skilled workers, strengthen the workforce pipeline, and generate strong returns to taxpayers. This brief summarizes Bartik's findings on early education. His book also contains a detailed analysis of the data on business incentives and related recommendations. (Contains 8 endnotes and 3 exhibits.)

America's Promise's ReadyNation initiative has released this brief, which "makes the case" to business leaders on why investing in early childhood should be important to them. The brief includes "how-to" tips, helpful statistics and more.

The United States has been underproducing college-going workers since 1980. Supply has failed to keep pace with growing demand, and as a result, income inequality has grown precipitously. From 1915 to 1980, supply grew in tandem with demand. But, starting in 1990, the share of college-educated young people in the workforce rose very slowly. If the nation continues to underproduce college-educated workers, the large and growing gap between the earnings of Americans of different educational attainment will grow even wider. This paper suggests that adding an additional 20 million postsecondary-educated workers over the course of the next 15 years will make the nation's level of educational attainment comparable with other developed nations, help meet the economy's need for efficiency, and reverse the growth of income inequality. [For the full report, "The Undereducated American," see ED524302.]

This document was produced by the authors based on their research for the report "Lost talent? The occupational ambitions and attainments of young Australians", and is an added resource for further information. The purpose of this supplement is to provide greater detail about the background of research into the topic of human talent in society. This body of research has, at one time or another, focused on talent utilisation, but more often has been concerned with talent loss. The concern with lost talent has a long history. By the mid-20th century, researchers were already concerned about the many persons who were not attaining the level of their potential innate ability, whether it be students attending school or university, people obtaining relevant skills, or those attaining occupations. Much of this concern about talent loss was implicit in the theories of human capital and in the development of strategies (for example, the provision of education, health, and other basic human needs) to improve the productive performance of the reserves of talent of both individuals and societies (Becker 1975; Denison 1962; Woodhall 1994). Most of the early concerns about reserves of talent focused on the importance of material needs for talent utilisation, but it was McClelland (1961) who argued that social psychological variables, such as motivation and need for achievement, are also important factors in the development of human potential. The underutilisation of potential human resources has been seen to negatively affect both individuals and societies, particularly as technologies, organisations and economies become more complex. [For the main report, "Lost Talent? The Occupational Ambitions and Attainments of Young Australians", see ED514894.]