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This report is concerned with suggestions for translating changing educational requirements and community needs into appropriate school facilities that are designed, or changed, to be cost beneficial and to conserve energy. Planning guides are offered for the construction and the improvement of elementary and secondary schools. Some preventative maintenance procedures and heat recovery methods are noted. The report also looks at alternative ways of heating and cooling but particularly at solar heating and heat pumps. Some figures from limited studies given to indicate energy savings that various modifications could be reasonably expected to offer. The uses of building systems and windmills are also examined. (Author/MLF)

Results and conclusions to date of a program to design, erect, and test a 5,000-square-foot solar energy system are presented in this report. The program described demonstrates the ability of solar collectors to supplement the heating and hot water requirements of North View Junior High School in suburban Minneapolis. The report discusses in detail the collector design, system design, system operation, and system performance. The basic rationale for the program is the necessity of obtaining firm answers in three areas: (1) validation of system performance, (2) determination of overall system costs, and (3) acquisition of data to determine the benefits of such a system. The program is obtaining engineering data that may be used to improve collector performance and system performance or design. In addition, data are being compiled that may be used to define investment requirements for similar installations. The program is also helping to determine community acceptance of solar heated school buildings. Testing at the site is continuing on a day-by-day basis to obtain additional data on system performance and benefits. (Author/MLF)

This report presents a plan developed by the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) concerning future energy sources. The plan summarizes ERDA's current views on the energy technologies the U.S. will need to achieve long-term energy independence. The role of the private sector in the development and commercialization of new energy technologies is addressed, and conservation technologies are ranked with supply technologies as the highest priorities for national action. (MH)

The purpose of this study was to establish the technical and economic feasibility of using solar energy for the heating and cooling of buildings and to provide baseline information for the widespread application of solar energy. The initial step in this program was a study of the technical, economic, societal, legal, and environmental factors involved with solar energy and the identification of barrier problems in its use and of potential solutions to these problems. The study also includes definitions and plans for proof-of-concept experiments. (Author/MLF)

General Electric Company was one of four contractors who received a contract in early January 1974 to design, build, and install a solar heating experiment in a public school. The overall objective of this program was to obtain data that would assist in evaluating the applicability of solar heating systems in large metropolitan areas. This data was to be an "operational" nature, in contrast to theoretical, and to encompass the areas of construction, societal interactions, economics, and aesthetics, as well as the thermal performance aspects. The data was obtained by constructng and operating a solar heating system of pilot plant scale on a middle school in Boston, Massachusetts. The Grover Cleveland School was the first solar heating experiment to come on line for continuous operation when heat was supplied at 4:10 p.m. on March 6, 1974. The system was operated through May 15, 1974. The experimental data collected during this period is presented in this report. The report describes the system in detail, presents the analysis of operation, and discusses recommendations and conclusions based on the results of the experiment. (Author/MLF)

After the Westinghouse Electric Corporation made a comprehensive analysis of the technical, economic, social, environmental, and institutional factors affecting the feasibility of utilizing solar energy for heating and cooling buildings, it determined that solar heating and cooling systems can become competitive in most regions of the country in the 1985-90 period. Heating-only systems can be competitive in the 1975-80 period in limited regions of the country. Impressive progress has recently been made in solar collectors, but further reduction in costs is necessary to capture a large market. Five regions of the country containing more than 75 percent of the country's population have been identified as the market for solar systems. Retrofit of solar systems to existing structures is not economically attractive for residential buildings but can be applied to larger buildings. The amount of fossil fuel that can be saved by use of solar energy will build up slowly and could reach 50 million barrels of oil per year by 1990. In the next century, sales of solar systems could approach $10 billion. A proof-of-concept experiment spanning a 3-year period involving 300 single-family residences and 25 large buildings, and requiring $26 million is recommended. (Author)

The purpose of this study was to establish the technical and economic feasibility of using solar energy for the heating and cooling of buildings. Five selected building types in 14 selected cities were used to determine loads for space heating, space cooling and dehumidification, and domestic service hot water heating. Relying on existing and proven solar and conventional climatic control hardware, three references designs were selected for detailed cost evaluation in each of the 14 cities and five building types. Mathematical models were constructed of the reference systems. A computer simulation of the reference systems with specified inputs to the program determined the overall system performance. A series of computer programs determined system cost and percent solar utilization for each of the reference systems. The market penetration analysis was integrated into the cost programs. The social impact of solar energy was assessed by a random telephone survey in three cities. Environmental and economic impact forecasts are calculated. Three proof-of-concept experiments were recommended. Phase 1 and 2 development plans were prepared, and a utilization plan for implementation and commercialization of solar energy systems was prepared. (Author/MLF)

In the middle of January 1974, AAI Corporation received a contract to conduct a solar heating proof-of-concept experiment (POCE) for a public school building. On March 1, 1974, the experiment began as Timonium Elementary School, in Maryland, became the first school in the United States to be heated by solar energy. In this brief period, the corporation designed, manufactured, and installed a solar energy collector array complete with mounting trusses, a 15,000 gallon water storage tank, a hot water heating system, and instrumentation. From March 1 to May 15 the wing of the school chosen for the solar experiment received 90 percent of its heat from the solar heating system. Experimental data collected during this period is presented in this report. The report describes the system in detail, presents the analysis of operation, and discusses recommendations and conclusions based on the results of the experiment. The experiment is considered successful since it has proven that the solar heating of schools is possible, practical, and socially acceptable. In addition, over 1,200 gallons of fuel oil were saved in the brief period the system has been in operation. (Author/MLF)

The purpose of this study was to establish more precisely what factors determine energy use in schools, to evaluate the efficiency of and necessity for these, and to make recommendations for the reduction of energy use. These recommendations will be applied to the design of specific projects that will be built, monitored, and evaluated. This report covers the pre-design research phase. Data sources for the study include New York City schools, five suburban school systems in the New York City region, and 31 electrically heated schools in the northeastern U.S. The report concludes that with recommended new standards in lighting, ventilation, and building design and with utilization of solar energy schools can be designed to operate with no educational penalty at a savings of from 25 to 50 percent of the monitored New York City level. (Author/MLF)

This report describes an experimental solar heating system, complete with thermal storage and controls, that has met all the heating requirements of five detached classrooms of the Fauquier High School in Warrenton, Virginia. The objectives of the experiment were to (1) demonstrate that solar energy can be used to provide a substantial part of the energy requirements of a public school, (2) determine the fuel/energy savings from the use of this system, (3) provide a sound economic basis for projecting costs and cost/benefits from the use of solar energy, and (4) determine figures for performance, and the maintenance and operational costs of the system. Figures and text fully present the specifications of the system. (Author/MLF)

This report presents the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) program plan for solar heating and cooling of buildings and for agricultural and industrial process applications. An overview of the program plan is followed by a description of the ten paths to the solar heating and cooling of buildings and a brief discussion of the agricultural and industrial process applications. The appendices present detailed information on the tasks, including flow diagrams for the heating and cooling tasks, brief descriptions of these tasks and of the nonengineering tasks, and an indication of the importance of each nonengineering task to the overall research and development program. (Author/MLF)

This interim report reviews the major incentive policy options available to accelerate market penetration of solar heating and cooling (SHAC) systems. Feasible policy options designed to overcome existing barriers to commercial acceptance and market penetration are identified and evaluated. The report is divided into seven sections, each dealing with a key problem relating to the widespread use of SHAC systems: (1) economic and financial incentives; (2) solar energy/public utility interface; (3) legal and regulatory issues; (4) Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) patent policy; (5) building codes, standards, and warranties; (6) marketing, manpower, consumer, and environmental issues; and (7) regional aspects of the incentives program. Within each of these areas the important potential barriers to the commercialization of SHAC systems are identified, assessed, and evaluated. The most effective incentive options are evaluated and in a detailed, comprehensive appendix, each of these incentive options is analyzed in depth, and numerous other potential incentives are also discussed. Listings of state solar energy legislation enacted or proposed as of January 1977 are given in the appendix. (Author/MLF)

A study has been made at the National Bureau of Standards of the different techniques that are or could be used for testing solar collectors and thermal storage devices that are used in solar heating and cooling systems. This report reviews the various testing methods and outlines a recommended test procedure, including apparatus and instrumentation, for both components. The recommended procedures have been written in the format of a standard of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and have been submitted to that organization for consideration. (Author)

A multitude of design strategies are available to achieve energy-efficient windows. Opportunities for improving window performance fall into six groups: site, exterior appendages, frame, glazing, interior accessories, and building interior. Design strategies within these groups can improve one or more of the six energy functions of windows: solar heating, daylighting, shading, insulation, air tightness, and ventilation. Included in this report are 33 strategies; an explanation of the physical phenomena responsible for each strategy's energy performance, summarized energy and nonenergy advantages and disadvantages; aesthetic considerations; cost approximations; example installations, laboratory studies, or calculations by the authors; and references. Intended readers include professional designers, lessees and owners of commercial space, home buyers and owners. The report's purpose is to draw attention to the wide range of options currently available to conserve energy with windows. (Author)

This paper provides a scientific basis for the formulation and expression of performance standards and specifications and for explicit attention to performance in procedural and prescriptive standards and specifications. The provisions of "Interim Performance Criteria for Solar Heating and Combined Heating/Cooling Systems and Dwellings," a performance specification developed by the National Bureau of Standards, are classified in terms of the physical entities addressed, the attributes of the built environment, and the properties that group together particular physical entities that may be subject to similar dysfunctions. These provisions are also subjected to a linguistic analysis that examines in detail the wording used and formalizes certain key concepts that are realized in the wording. The provisions of the "Uniform Plumbing Code," a prescriptive code, are classified in terms of the physical entities addressed and the performance attributes that can be inferred (though they are not explicitly addressed). Guidelines for the expression of provisions in performance codes and specifications are presented. These guidelines are based on the classification studies and the linguistic analysis mentioned above. (Author)

The Center for Building Technology (CBT) provides the technical and scientific bases for criteria and standards that improve the usefulness, safety, and economy of buildings. CBT research also aims at conserving building materials and energy. Individual projects may emphasize one or more of the center's typical activities in providing improved knowledge, in usable form, to the building community. Typical activities include problem analysis to define and characterize needs for improved building practices; research to obtain vital new knowledge, technical problem solving to develop improved practices from the best available knowledge; dissemination of results to users in the building community; and impact analysis to show how well the center's work has met the building community's needs and whether elements of the original problem remain unresolved or new problems exist. This report summarizes CBT's research for calendar year 1976. Each summary lists the project title, its progress, point of contact within CBT, and sponsor. This report supersedes the 1976 edition of SP446, which covered the 1975 CBT projects. (Author)

The Center for Building Technology (CBT) provides the technical and scientific bases for criteria and standards that improve the usefulness, safety, and economy of buildings while conserving building materials and energy. CBT's activities support the building technology program of the federal, state, and local government; assist design professions, building officials, and the research community by developing design criteria that improve buildings; and assist manufacturers of building products by developing criteria for evaluating innovative building materials. The report summarizes CBT's research for calendar year 1975. Each summary lists the project title, its progress, point of contact within CBT, and sponsor. The summaries presented in this report are arranged by subject-matter categories to group like projects. (Author/MLF)

This paper, one of a series published by the Worldwatch Institute to identify and focus attention on global problems, is adapted from the author's book, "Rays of Hope: The Transition to a Post-Petroleum World." The author examines the current energy problems of the world, and determines that the energy patterns of the past are not the prologue to the future. The inadequacies associated with energy alternatives to petroleum, such as coal and nuclear fusion, are identified and discussed. Thus, society is left with only the solar options: wind, falling water, biomass, and direct sunlight. The historical development, technology, and current status of each of the solar options is detailed. The social and political ramifications of the conversion to a society based on solar energy are hypothesized. The author concludes that the conversion to solar energy is technically feasible, economically sound, and environmentally attractive. (BT)

This study serves as an introduction to the important economic considerations that are necessary for an assessment of the potential for solar heating and cooling in the United States. The first chapter introduces the technology that is used to tap solar energy for residential and commercial applications and illustrates the potential significance of this energy source on a national scale. A methodology for assessing the economic feasibility of solar heating and cooling is presented in the second chapter with the results of a study of material, labor, marketing, and engineering costs of solar equipment. The third chapter applies the methodology to a study of the economic feasibility of residential solar heating in 20 cities. The potential for reductions in the cost of solar equipment through mass production and technology improvements, and the effects of increases in conventional fuel prices are included in the feasibility assessments. Finally, national security, environmental, and institutional considerations are discussed to place the economic assessment in its proper perspective. (Author)

A roundtable on Appropriate Technology (AT) was sponsored by the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges (AACJC) and supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as a result of a mandate from Congress to develop an AT program. The roundtable report first discusses the role of the NSF in including community colleges in the project, strengthening the scientific base of AT, improving understanding of AT as a science and technology concept, and funding relevant research. Two papers presented at the roundtable follow. The first provides: (1) a definition of AT, demonstrating its small scale, localized approach to the provision of basic needs with minimum demands upon the environment; (2) profiles of AT supporter groups, including back-to-the-land enthusiasts and low-income groups faced with rising energy costs; (3) a rationale for community college involvement in AT that stresses the parallels between the two in local orientation and pragmatism; (4) a discussion of AT activities that community colleges can sponsor; and (5) a comment on the potential role of the AACJC in AT. The second paper outlines roundtable recommendations for the involvement of community colleges and the AACJC in AT. The report concludes with additional observations pointing to current community college activities, including the alcohol fuel development program at Colby Community College. (J)