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Funding: This manuscript resulted from a Workshop in 2019 at the Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum Frankfurt, Germany, supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDA20100300). J. Liu also thanks the support of the Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Hydrosphere and Watershed Water Security. T. Ehlers thanks the California Institute of Technology Moore Distinguished Scholar Program for support in completing this manuscript during a sabbatical. J. Liu and T. Bolch thank the support from the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grants no. XDA20060402, XDA20100300). We thank the German Science Foundation (DFG) for support of the TiP (Tibetan Plateau: Formation-Climate-Ecoystems) priority research program (SPP-1372) for initiating the collaborations that led to this manuscript. Interactions between the atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere are most active in the critical zone, a region extending from the tops of trees to the top of unweathered bedrock. Changes in one or more of these spheres can result in a cascade of changes throughout the system in ways that are often poorly understood. Here we investigate how past and present climate change have impacted permafrost, hydrology, and ecosystems on the Tibetan Plateau. We do this by compiling existing climate, hydrologic, cryosphere, biosphere, and geologic studies documenting change over decadal to glacial-interglacial timescales and longer. Our emphasis is on showing present-day trends in environmental change and how plateau ecosystems have largely flourished under warmer and wetter periods in the geologic past. We identify two future pathways that could lead to either a favorable greening or unfavorable degradation and desiccation of plateau ecosystems. Both paths are plausible given the available evidence. We contend that the key to which pathway future generations experience lies in what, if any, human intervention measures are implemented. We conclude with suggested management strategies that can be implemented to facilitate a future greening of the Tibetan Plateau. Publisher PDF

Spatial vegetation patterns potentially reflect coeval continental climate variations which are also impacted by palaeogeographical settings. Plant functional types (PFTs) and their distribution, frequently applied in ecological studies and biome modelling, serve as a tool for reconstructing palaeovegetation units and ultimately tracing palaeoecological/climate gradients. Earlier quantitative studies focusing on distribution patterns of PFTs and designed to put forward data-model comparisons were carried out on well-dated Middle and Late Miocene floras. Moreover, the PFT approach has been successfully applied to reconstruct Eocene vegetation patterns in several time slices at a global scale as well as in regional vegetation reconstructions throughout the Cenozoic. In the current study, a PFT approach with 41 different classes is applied on Rupelian and Chattian fossil floras of Europe and western Asia to infer spatial vegetation differences across the study area. A comprehensive palaeobotanical record including ~163 macro- (leaves, fruits and seeds) and microfloras was compiled. The floristic components of these palaeofloras are translated to PFTs including herbaceous to arboreal classes. The PFTs are defined using traits and climatic thresholds of key taxa, and comprise species assigned by morphological and phenological features with respect to the related ecosystem. Diversity values of each PFT are calculated for the fossil floras and spatial gradients over western Eurasia are investigated for the Rupelian and Chattian. PFT diversity maps and transects for both time slices reveal basic patterns of the vegetational structure at the continental scale. It is shown that in both time slices studied tropical and broadleaved evergreen PFTs were more diverse in the West and at lower latitudes. Consistently with the global climate evolution as known from marine archives and regional continental records their level was higher in the Rupelian compared to the Chattian. All over low diversities of xeric PFTs coincide with the previously assumed dominance of humid climate conditions in western Eurasia throughout the Oligocene, however, the reconstructed spatial gradients suggest somewhat drier conditions to the southwest and southeast of the study area.

Our objective is to analyse global‐scale patterns of mountain biodiversity and the driving forces leading to the observed patterns. More specifically, we test the ‘mountain geobiodiversity hypothesis’ (MGH) which is based on the assumption that it is not mountain‐uplift alone which drives the evolution of mountain biodiversity, but rather the combination of geodiversity evolution and Neogene and Pleistocene climate changes. We address the following questions: (a) Do areas of high geodiversity and high biodiversity in mountains overlap, that is can mountain geodiversity predict mountain biodiversity? (b) What is the role of Pleistocene climate change in shaping mountain biodiversity? (c) Did diversification rate shifts occur predominantly with the onset of more pronounced climate fluctuations in the late Neogene and Pleistocene fostering a ‘species pump’ effect, as predicted by the MGH?

The Paleogene climate dynamics in Primorye (Far East of Russia) are studied using the Coexistence Approach, based on palaeobotanical records. Palaeobotanical data for the reconstruction comprises 54 palaeofloras covering the early Paleocene to late Oligocene, a time span of ca. 42 myr. The climate inferences obtained are consistent with independently derived global trends, demonstrating general climate cooling through the Paleogene. Cooling is most striking regarding the cold month mean temperature, while the decline of mean annual temperature was less marked. Our data indicate that the Paleogene climate of Primorye was significantly warmer than present, in general, with the warmest conditions prevailing throughout the Eocene and in the southeast of the study area. Negligible Paleogene temperature gradients over Primorye are related to the global pattern and specific regional aspects. The precipitation reconstruction points to conditions considerably wetter than at present. A distinct increase in mean annual precipitation is observed for the early Eocene and persisted throughout the Eocene and Oligocene. The regional rainfall pattern fundamentally differed from modern conditions, and this holds for all studied variables. The inland region and the south of Primorye were significantly more humid than today. The Paleogene pattern was possibly related to a monsoon-type circulation and enhanced landward flow of humid air masses, due to an overall flatter geomorphology of the East Asian coastal areas.

ZusammenfassungDer Mensch greift seit jeher in das Systemgefüge der Erde ein, doch seit dem Neolithikum entwickeln sich diese Eingriffe zunehmend zu einer nicht nachhaltigen Ausbeutung der Natur. Durch die gravierenden rasanten Veränderungen im Anthropozän wird ein modernes Erdsystem-Management oder Geoengineering, das die „Permanenz echten menschlichen Lebens“ (Hans Jonas) sichert, nun zu einer dringenden Herausforderung. Dafür müssen zunächst gültige Zielgrößen definiert werden, die fortlaufend immer wieder im wechselseitigen Abgleich der aus dem Management-System resultierenden Folgen angepasst werden müssen. Für ein solches weltweit wirkendes System sind sowohl technische als auch ökonomische und politische Werkzeuge notwendig, die durch eine umfassende Governance gesteuert werden.

With 450,000 km2 Kobresia (syn. Carex) pygmaea dominated pastures in the eastern Tibetan highlands are the world's largest pastoral alpine ecosystem forming a durable turf cover at 3000–6000 m a.s.l. Kobresia's resilience and competitiveness is based on dwarf habit, predominantly below-ground allocation of photo assimilates, mixture of seed production and clonal growth, and high genetic diversity. Kobresia growth is co-limited by livestock-mediated nutrient withdrawal and, in the drier parts of the plateau, low rainfall during the short and cold growing season. Overstocking has caused pasture degradation and soil deterioration over most parts of the Tibetan highlands and is the basis for this man-made ecosystem. Natural autocyclic processes of turf destruction and soil erosion are initiated through polygonal turf cover cracking, and accelerated by soil-dwelling endemic small mammals in the absence of predators. The major consequences of vegetation cover deterioration include the release of large amounts of C, earlier diurnal formation of clouds, and decreased surface temperatures. These effects decrease the recovery potential of Kobresia pastures and make them more vulnerable to anthropogenic pressure and climate change. Traditional migratory rangeland management was sustainable over millennia, and possibly still offers the best strategy to conserve and possibly increase C stocks in the Kobresia turf. (Less)

Based on ecospectra of 66 published carpofloras we study dynamics and evolution of Turgay vegetation in Western Siberia during the early Oligocene to earliest Miocene. The ecospectra are obtained using a Plant Functional Type (PFT) classification system comprising 26 herbaceous to arboreal PFTs. The carpofloras originate from seven floristic levels covering the time‐span from the Rupelian to early Aquitanian. Key elements of these levels are documented based on original collection materials. Although impacted by local edaphic conditions, the ecospectra can be interpreted in terms of changing vegetation. Our data show that warm temperate mesophytic, mixed conifer‐broad‐leaved deciduous forest assemblages persisted throughout the Oligocene and earliest Miocene in this core area of Turgai type vegetation. This is in line with comparatively stable climate conditions persisting in the studied time‐span, showing a minor temperature decline and coeval moderate increase in seasonality and precipitation. Concurrently, the reconstructed ecospectra contradict significant continental drying throughout the Oligocene and earliest Miocene. Spatial variability of the proportions of PFTs within the single floristic horizons primarily reflects local edaphic conditions. High diversities of PFTs characteristic for swamp vegetation are mainly confined to the early Oligocene and have a regional focus. Our results indicate that taxonomical diversity, particularly concerning mesic herbs and deciduous shrubs and trees, increased towards the end of the Oligocene. This increase in biodiversity probably can be attributed to an increase in rainfall and extension of terrestrial habitats after the final retreat of the Paratethys.

In this study comprehensive palaeofloristic data of lower Miocene deposits from the Soma Basin, western Anatolia is presented considering the stratigraphical concept. The sediments of the basin, derived from outcrop sections, were deposited in the terrestrial environment. The basin includes three different successions: lower and middle lignite successions of the Soma Formation and upper lignite succession of the Denis Formation. In this paper, we address the early Miocene palaeoecology via pollen and leaf assemblages from the Soma Basin, dated precisely using radiometric data. High percentages of Cupressaceae in the lower lignite succession of the Soma Formation, and minor quantities of elements such as Carya, Nyssa, Myrica, Ulmus and Salix reflect a local riparian and swamp vegetation. Marls overlying the lower lignite succession represent an environment close to the source area, with a variety of flora. During the deposition of middle lignite succession wet conditions played an essential role in the swamp forest fostering some distance transport of pollen which reflect the mesophytic forest vegetation as well as higher altitudes in the hinterland. The high percentages of lacustrine plankton Botryococcus and presence of Spirogyra in the upper lignite succession of the Denis Formation imply a shallow water environment with less rainfall surrounded by evergreen and deciduous mixed forest.

Cenozoic vegetation gradients in the mid- and higher latitudes of Central Eurasia are studied based on a total of 22 mega- (fruits and seeds, leaves) and 20 microfloras (pollen and spores) compiled from literature. Vegetation is interpreted at the level of plants functional types (PFTs) using a system including 26 classes and an aquatic functional type. The obtained ecospectra showing diversity of PFTs are interpreted in three time slices, namely the early Oligocene, early Miocene and late Pliocene/early Pleistocene. Our results confirm the presence of diverse mixed forests (Turgai type) in the study area throughout the late Paleogene and early Neogene, partly, raised diversity of herbaceous components, especially of dry herbs, and the presence of xeric shrub PFTs points to more open plant cover. The late Pliocene/early Pleistocene spectra from the central and southern latitudinal zones of the study area confirm the existence of open landscapes in general, but partly have a considerable arboreal diversity excluding the presence of mere steppe. Ecospectra obtained from the diversity of functional types have a characteristic representativeness depending on the organ types considered in each case, and therefore have a delimited comparability. Our results show that PFT diversities obtained from microfloras are most suitable in estimating the openness of landscape and in representing zonal biomes in general. The vegetational patterns reconstructed based on the ecospectra of fossil floras basically support the results obtained from previous palaeoclimate reconstructions evidencing cooling and drying of the continental interior of Eurasia throughout the later Neogene. Moreover, the PFT approach is proven more sensitive to identify seasonal drought when compared to other, taxonomy based climate reconstruction methods. Moreover, a first attempt is made to quantify latitudinal temperature gradients for the study area. Data indicate that the Oligocene and early Miocene gradients where shallow and almost identical while the late Pliocene/early Pleistocene gradient was intermediate between the earlier Neogene and the modern one.

The Pannonian Basin system provides sufficient data to study local and regional vegetation in the context of palaeoclimate and palaeogeography. The present study attempts to make use of the latest results in stratigraphy and track vegetation change throughout the Late Miocene. Vegetation layers are reconstructed for five time slices, from 10.8 Ma to 6.5 Ma, and placed in a palaeogeographic context. Plant functional types and their distribution, frequently applied in ecological studies and biome modelling, serve as a tool for reconstructing palaeovegetation units. A classification system is introduced considering non-zonal elements as well, in order to represent the Neogene floral record. The PFT spectra obtained from fossil leaf assemblages indicate the presence of mainly broadleaved deciduous vegetation throughout the regarded time span, with variable diversities of conifers and broadleaved evergreen vegetation components. During the Late Miocene, the lowland vegetation of the Pannonian realm seemed to be more homogeneous than reported in other reconstructions, which is in line with the persistence of overall warm and humid climate conditions. The existence of distinctly dry periods as partly suggested by other proxies is not supported. At the same time, data suggest the coeval declining trend of the broadleaved evergreen component in the study area, and its final complete disappearance from the north of the Pannonian Basin. In the younger time slices, constantly humid conditions might have existed along the northern border of the lake, possibly connected to uplift pulses of the Alps and Carpathians.

We apply the Coexistence Approach (CoA) to reconstruct mean annual precipitation (MAP), mean annual temperature (MAT), mean temperature of the warmest month (MTWA) and mean temperature of the coldest month (MTCO) at 44 pollen sites on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau. The modern climate ranges of the taxa are obtained (1) from county-level presence/absence data and (2) from data on the optimum and range of each taxon from Lu et al. (2011). The CoA based on the optimum and range data yields better predictions of observed climate parameters at the pollen sites than that based on the county-level data. The presence of arboreal pollen, most of which is derived from outside the region, distorts the reconstructions. More reliable reconstructions are obtained using only the non-arboreal component of the pollen assemblages. The root mean-squared error (RMSE) of the MAP reconstructions are smaller than the RMSE of MAT, MTWA and MTCO, suggesting that precipitation gradients are the most important control of vegetation distribution on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau. Our results show that CoA could be used to reconstruct past climates in this region, although in areas characterized by open vegetation the most reliable estimates will be obtained by excluding possible arboreal contaminants.

Bu çalışma, Soma ve Uşak-Güre havzalarındaki kömürlü Miyosen tortulların paleoekolojik özellikleriniortaya koymaktadır. Soma Havzasındaki palinolojik örnekler Arabacıbozköy yakınındaki sondajdan elde edilmiştir. Sondaj karotunun kalınlığı 425 m olup, genellikle ince kırıntılı tortullar, linyit ve tüfitli seviyelerden oluşmaktadır. Kırıntılı ve linyitli seviyeler içeren bölüm Soma Formasyonuna, volkanik kırıntılı seviyeler içeren bölüm ise Deniş Formasyonuna karşılık gelmektedir. Soma Formasyonundan elde edilen palinolojik topluluk, ayırtlanmamış Pinaceae, Cupressaceae, herdem yeşil Quercus, Quercus spp. ve Alnus formlarını bol miktarda içermektedir. Toplulukta Poaceae ve Ephedra gibi otsul bitkiler düşük oranda gözlenmektedir. Deniş Formasyonu da Soma Formasyonda yüksek yüzdelerde kaydedilen sporomorfları içermektedir.Toplulukta, Castanea ve Engelhardia formları da bol miktardadır. Ancak Soma polen topluluğunda düşükyüzdelerle kaydedilen otsul bitkiler burada hem çeşit olarak hem de yüzdece daha fazla miktarda temsiledilmektedir. Otsul bitkiler Poaceae, Asteraceae ve Amaranthaceae’den oluşmaktadır. Uşak-Güre Havzasındaki Miyosen yaşlı tortullar Hacıbekir Grubu içerisinde bulunmaktadır. İlyaslı, Banaz ve Büyükoturak lokasyonlarındaki linyitli istiflerden bölümsel kesitler alınmış ve palinolojik örnekler derlenmiştir. Herbir lokasyonun sporomorf toplulukları, Polypodiaceae/Telipteridaceae, ayrılmamış Pinaceae, herdem yeşil Quercus, Quercus spp. ve Alnus formlarının bol olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak miktarlarda yersel farklılıklar bulunmaktadır. İlyaslı polen topluluğunda, spor çeşitliliği ve yüzdesi en yüksektir. Ayrıca diğer topluluklarda çok düşük oranlarda gözlenenen Cupressaceae, burada çok yüksek miktarlardadır. Büyükoturak polen topluluğunda, Carya ve Sparganiaceae formları baskındır. Poaceae, Asteraceae ve Amaranthaceae gibi otsul bitkiler Büyükoturak ve Banaz polen topluluklarında yüksek miktarlarda gözlenmektedir. Polen konsantrasyonlarındaki bu değişimler yersel bitki örtüsündeki değişimle ilgili olmalıdır. Elde edilen paleoiklim verilerine göre Soma ve Uşak-Güre havzalarıdaki kömürlü tortullarının çökelimi nemli ve sıcak koşullarda gerçekleşmiş olmalıdır.

a b s t r a c t The evolution of Cenozoic continental climate signals from the Atlantic and Pacific side of Eurasia can be assessed for the first time by comparing climate records obtained for two mid-latitudinal regions. For the West, a detailed climate record over the past 45 Ma, based on palaeofloras from two Northern German Cenozoic basins (Mosbrugger et al., 2005 )r evealed major trends and shorter-term events throughout the Cenozoic Cooling, thus testifying the close correlation of continental and marine temperature evolution as derived from oxygen isotopes (Zachos et al., 2008). Using the same methodology, we analyze a total of 14 floral horizons originating from continental strata of Southern Primory'e (Russia) in order to study the evolution at the eastern side of the continent. The Primory'e record spans the middle Eocene to early Pleistocene. As the coeval record for the Atlantic side, it reflects major global signals of Cenozoic climate change such as the temperature decline throughout the late Eocene, coinciding with the growth of Antarctic Ice-sheets, warming during the Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum, and step-wise cooling throughout the later Neogene. The comparison of both records reveals differing regional patterns. The considerable longitudinal temperature gradient, currently existing between both study areas, already began to evolve during the Aquitanian, and was very significant during the Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum. The temperature offset between East and West is likely attributable to an effective North Atlantic Current, already operational from the late early Miocene onwards bringing about mild winters and low seasonality in Western Europe, while in Primory'e, seasonality steadily increased from the late Oligocene on. The strong late Pliocene decline of cold month mean temperatures recorded in Primory'e is supposed to coincide with the establishment of the Siberian High as semi-permanent structure of the Northern Hemisphere circulation pattern. When comparing the precipitation records obtained for both study areas, an unexpected co-variability at the longer-term (in the order of 5-20 Ma) is noted, pointing to continent-wide hydrological changes. The steady decline of mean annual precipitation in the Primory'e record, beginning in the Bartonian and culminating in the Aquitanian, coincides with an aridity increase reported from coeval Chinese inland localities of the mid-latitudes. The seasonality patterns of rainfall point to progressive intensification of the East Asian Summer Monsoon in Primory'e since the later Tortonian while the post-Zanclean decline of the precipitation of the dry season can be related to an increasing impact of the winter monsoon. © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The Third Pole (TP) is experiencing rapid warming and is currently in its warmest period in the past 2,000 years. This paper reviews the latest development in multidisciplinary TP research associated with this warming. The rapid warming facilitates intense and broad glacier melt over most of the TP, although some glaciers in the northwest are advancing. By heating the atmosphere and reducing snow/ice albedo, aerosols also contribute to the glaciers melting. Glacier melt is accompanied by lake expansion and intensification of the water cycle over the TP. Precipitation has increased over the eastern and northwestern TP. Meanwhile, the TP is greening and most regions are experiencing advancing phenological trends, although over the southwest there is a spring phenological delay mainly in response to the recent decline in spring precipitation. Atmospheric and terrestrial thermal and dynamical processes over the TP affect the Asian monsoon at different scales. Recent evidence indicates substantial roles that mesoscale convective systems play in the TP’s precipitation as well as an association between soil moisture anomalies in the TP and the Indian monsoon. Moreover, an increase in geohazard events has been associated with recent environmental changes, some of which have had catastrophic consequences caused by glacial lake outbursts and landslides. Active debris flows are growing in both frequency of occurrences and spatial scale. Meanwhile, new types of disasters, such as the twin ice avalanches in Ali in 2016, are now appearing in the region. Adaptation and mitigation measures should be taken to help societies’ preparation for future environmental challenges. Some key issues for future TP studies are also discussed.

Kobresia pastures in the eastern Tibetan highlands occupy 450000 km2 and form the world’s largest pastoral alpine ecosystem. The main constituent is an endemic dwarf sedge, Kobresia pygmaea, which forms a lawn with a durable turf cover anchored by a felty root mat, and occurs from 3000 m to nearly 6000 m a.s.l. The existence and functioning of this unique ecosystem and its turf cover have not yet been explained against a backdrop of natural and anthropogenic factors, and thus its origin, drivers, vulnerability or resilience remain largely unknown. Here we present a review on ecosystem diversity, reproduction and ecology of the key species, pasture health, cycles of carbon (C), water and nutrients, and on the paleo-environment. The methods employed include molecular analysis, grazing exclusion, measurements with micro-lysimeters and gas exchange chambers, 13C and 15N labelling, eddy-covariance flux measurements, remote sensing and atmospheric modelling.The following combination of traits makes Kobresia pygmaea resilient and highly competitive: dwarf habit, predominantly below-ground allocation of photo assimilates, mixed reproduction strategy with both seed production and clonal growth, and high genetic diversity. Growth of Kobresia pastures is co-limited by low rainfall during the short growing season and livestock-mediated nutrient withdrawal. Overstocking has caused pasture degradation and soil deterioration, yet the extent remains debated. In addition, we newly describe natural autocyclic processes of turf erosion initiated through polygonal cracking of the turf cover, and accelerated by soil-dwelling endemic small mammals. The major consequences of the deterioration of the vegetation cover and its turf include: (1) the release of large amounts of C and nutrients and (2) earlier diurnal formation of clouds resulting in (3) decreased surface temperatures with (4) likely consequences for atmospheric circulation on large regional and, possibly global, scales.Paleo-environmental reconstruction, in conjunction with grazing experiments, suggests that the present grazing lawns of Kobresia pygmaea are synanthropic and may have existed since the onset of pastoralism. The traditional migratory rangeland management was sustainable over millennia and possibly still offers the best strategy to conserve, and possibly increase, the C stocks in the Kobresia turf, as well as its importance for climate regulation.

The Coexistence Approach was established by Mosbrugger and Utescher (1997) as a plant-based method to reconstruct palaeoclimate by considering recent climatic distribution ranges of the nearest living relatives of each fossil taxon. During its existence for over more than 15 years, its basics have been tested and reviewed in comparison with other terrestrial and marine climate reconstruction techniques and climate modelling data. However, some controversies remain about its underlying data or its applicability in general. In view of these controversies this paper discusses the power and limitations of the Coexistence Approach by summarising past results and new developments. We give insights into the details and problems of each step of the application from the assignment of the fossil plant to the most suitable nearest living relative, the crucial consideration of the usefulness of specific taxa towards their climatic values and the correct interpretation of the software-based suggested palaeoclimatic intervals. Furthermore, we reflect on the fundamental data integrated in the Coexistence Approach by explaining different concepts and usages of plant distribution information and the advantages and disadvantages of modern climatic maps. Additionally, we elaborate on the importance of continually updating the information incorporated in the database due to new findings in e.g., (palaeo-)botany, meteorology and computer technology. Finally, for a transparent and appropriate use, we give certain guidelines for future applications and emphasize to users how to carefully consider and discuss their results. We show the Coexistence Approach to be an adaptive method capable of yielding palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental information through rime and space. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Cenozoic vegetation change in Western Siberia and northeastern Russia is quantified based on the analysis of diversity of plant functional types (PFTs). Carpofloras (148 total) compiled from published sources are assigned to a total of nine time slices spanning the period from the middle Eocene to the late Pliocene. Comparisons among four defined key regions allow study of spatial diversity gradients and their evolution. Our novel PFT classification scheme, designed for use in biome modeling, comprises 26 herbaceous to arboreal PFTs based on physiognomic characters and bioclimatic tolerances of plants, completed by an aquatic PFT. Using multivariate statistics, localities with similar PFT spectra are grouped and interpreted in terms of biomes. The results are visualized on paleovegetation maps and in PFT diversity records documenting vegetation evolution by key region. In northeastern Russia, mixed and conifer forest biomes existed during the Neogene. Diversity spectra indicate that even in the late Neogene, warm and humid conditions prevailed in this region, probably related to coeval intensification of the East Asian monsoon system. In Western Siberia, mesophytic forests with higher proportions of broadleaved evergreens dominated during the earlier Paleogene. Subsequent vegetation change is mainly expressed by a steadily increasing diversity of herbaceous PFTs. In the southern part of Western Siberia, distinct opening of the vegetation occurred in the late Miocene, connected to drying. The coeval declining trend of thermophilous PFTs in the north coincides with intensified cooling of the high latitudes.

To understand the vegetation succession and climatic changes at the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau in the Neogene, we reconstructed the Middle Miocene vegetation and climate based on palynological data from four localities, which are at different latitudes along the Ailao Mountains in Yunnan, southwest China. The palynological assemblages suggest that the vegetation there was composed of mixed evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved forests growing under subtropical conditions. Based on the palynological data, the palaeoclimatic parameters from the four localities are established. The new parameters were compared with those of the Late Miocene, of the Late Pliocene, and of today. The comparison revealed that the temperatures were obviously lower in the Middle Miocene than they are today. This suggested that the Ailao Mountains were not high enough to block the Asian Winter Monsoon in the Middle Miocene. The Middle Miocene vegetation at the southeastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau was also compared to that of Central Tibet. It would appear that the palaeoclimate at the southeastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau was warmer and wetter than in Central Tibet. In contrast to the Neogene cooling in Central Europe, the climate at the southeastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau has gradually warmed since the Middle Miocene. This phenomenon was most likely caused by the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, which has succeeded in blocking the Asian Winter Monsoon since the Middle Miocene.

The Tibetan Plateau and surrounding mountains represent one of the largest ice masses of the Earth. The region, referred to by scientists as the Third Pole, covering 5 million km2 with an average elevation of >4000 m and including more than 100,000 km2 of glaciers, is the most sensitive and readily visible indicator of climate change. The area also demonstrates considerable feedbacks to global environmental changes. The unique interactions among the atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere on the Third Pole ensure permanent flow of Asia's major rivers, thus significantly influencing social and economic development of China, India, Nepal, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bhutan where a fifth of the world's population lives. Like Antarctica and the Arctic, a series of observations and monitoring activities in the Third Pole region have been widely implemented. Yet for a comprehensive understanding of the Third Pole, current observational resources need to be integrated and perfected, and research goals and approaches need to be updated and identified. The Third Pole Environment (TPE) program aims to attract relevant research institutions and academic talents to focus on a theme of ‘water–ice–air–ecosystem–human’ interactions, to reveal environmental change processes and mechanisms on the Third Pole and their influences on and responses to global changes, and thus to serve for enhancement of human adaptation to the changing environment and realization of human–nature harmony.

Der globale Wandel ist in vollem Gange und betrifft nicht nur das Klima, sondern auch die Biodiversitat. Gleichzeitig fuhren weltweite Anderungen in der Land- und Wassernutzung sowie invasive Arten zu rasanten Veranderungen unserer Lebensgemeinschaften. Die Menschheit ist auf vielfaltige Weise von diesem Wandel betroffen. Globaler Wandel wird in vielen Landern zu steigender Armut und politischen Unruhen fuhren. Die Erforschung der Ursachen und Folgen von Biodiversitats- und Klimaveranderungen und ihre Diskussion in der Gesellschaft stellen eine zentrale Herausforderung dar. Global change is in full progress! Global change is in full progress and includes world-wide climatic and biodiversity changes. Alterations of land and water use in many areas as well as passive and active spreading of exotic species are further drivers of change. Mankind is impacted in many respects. Global change will lead in many countries to increasing poverty and will result in political instability. The research about causes and consequences of biological and climatic changes and the discussion within the society is therefore a crucial challenge.

Recent studies in the frame of the NECLIME (Neogene Climate Evolution in Eurasia) network provide a comprehensive inventory of continental palaeoclimate data for various time slices reconstructed from the palaeobotanical record. The integrative analysis of spatial gradients and patterns observed from the proxy data, together with data obtained from numeric modelling studies considerably improved our knowledge about the functioning of the climate system in the Cenozoic. When compared to the present an overall warmer, more humid climate existed. Cenozoic climates are characterized by warm high latitudes, shallow latitudinal and longitudinal gradients and wet continental interiors while concentration of greenhouse gases was about at the present-day level or considerably higher. Thus, these past climates potentially are valuable to better understand future climate change because they allow empirical access to climate situations that do not or not yet exist today. In the present study, continental climate data calculated from micro- and macrofloras using the Coexistence Approach are analysed in order to compare past gradients and patterns and their anomalies relative to present-day conditions with future climate change scenarios. For the case study, three time intervals are selected: The Mid-Eocene represents a very warm period of the Cenozoic exemplifying greenhouse conditions with high atmospheric CO 2 of over 1.100 ppmv. The Mid-Miocene is known as outstanding warm time interval as well. The concentration of greenhouse gases is still controversially discussed, but was certainly below the Eocene level. A third interval selected, the Tortonian, represents a time-span of subsequent cooling with the beginning of Arctic glaciation. For this period, a pre-industrial CO 2 level is assumed. It is shown that the study of past climate patterns provides important clues when evaluating modelling results for future scenarios. Anomalies predicted under global warming partly coincide with the palaeoclimate data sets. As an example for greenhouse conditions, the Mid-Eocene data also show a strong warming of the high latitudes and a significant positive anomaly of winter temperatures in the continental interior as in the model study for the future scenario. However, for the Tortonian where a pre-industrial CO 2 can be assumed data show the best agreement with predicted patterns.

The fossil record for the Late Miocene indicates that high latitudes were warmer than today and that the equator-to-pole temperature gradient was weak. Experiments with climate models have not been sufficiently able to represent warm polar conditions for the Late Miocene. This demonstrates that our explanation of warm high latitudes in the Late Miocene is not complete. In addition, heat transport mechanisms have not been so frequently addressed to understand the differences between the Late Miocene and modern climate. Here we present a model simulation for the Tortonian (11 to 7 Ma) using a complex fully-coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model to address heat transport mechanisms relative to modern conditions. Because of an open Central American Isthmus, the zonal mean northward ocean heat transport in the Northern Hemisphere generally decreases in our Tortonian run. As a consequence, the northward atmospheric heat transport is stronger in the Tortonian experiment. In northern mid-latitudes, the sensible and latent heat fluxes related to transient eddies increase compared to today. The stronger poleward transient eddy heat transport in the Tortonian model run correlates with intensified stormtracks in the mid-latitudes. In the palaeoclimate model run, the increased northward transient eddy heat transport together with the different-than-present land surface cover leads to a warming of polar regions and, hence, to a reduction of the meridional temperature gradient. The low elevation of Tibet in our palaeoclimate experiment causes a general weakening of the monsoon system in Asia. The E-Asian monsoon precipitation decreases compared to our reference run, but monsoon rainfall in India increases. When comparing the model results with quantitative terrestrial proxy data, we observe some discrepancies for some specific localities. However, the large patterns in our Tortonian run agree fairly well with the fossil record.

Southern China, especially Yunnan, has undergone high tectonic activity caused by the uplift of Himalayan Mountains during the Neogene, which led to a fast changing palaeogeography. Previous study shows that Southern China has been influenced by the Asian Monsoon since at least the Early Miocene. However, it is yet not well understood how intense the Miocene monsoon system was. In the present study, 63 fossil floras of 16 localities from Southern China are compiled and evaluated for obtaining available information concerning floristic composition, stratigraphic age, sedimentology, etc. Based on such reliable information, selected mega- and micro-floras have been analysed with the coexistence approach to obtain quantitative palaeoclimate data. Visualization of climate results in maps shows a distinct spatial differentiation in Southern China during the Miocene. Higher seasonalities of temperature and precipitation occur in the north and south parts of Southern China, respectively. During the Miocene, most regions of Southern China and Europe were both warm and humid. Central Eurasia was likely to be an arid center, which gradually spread westward and eastward. Our data provide information about Miocene climate patterns in Southern China and about the evolution of these patterns throughout the Miocene, and is also crucial to unravel and understand the climatic signals of global cooling and tectonic uplift.

The CARAIB (CARbon Assimilation In the Biosphere) model is used to study the vegetation distribution during the Late Miocene (Tortonian). In this version, the plant classification is specifically adapted to best represent Miocene European vegetation. Compared to other plant classifications used in global models, this adapted classification is more refined, since it is specifically developed for European vegetation and it includes various thermophylous tree types, which were present in Europe during the Miocene. The corresponding climatic tolerance parameters are based on the study of Laurent et al. (Journal of Vegetation Science, 15, 739-746, 2004 ) for the tree types currently present in Europe and on the distribution of analogue species in southeastern Asia and North/Central America for the thermophylous (sub-tropical) trees. The same classification is used to characterize the palaeoflora at the available Late Miocene localities, allowing a model–data comparison at the plant functional type level, rather than at the biome level. The climatic inputs to CARAIB are obtained from the COSMOS atmosphere–ocean general circulation model. The climatic anomalies (Tortonian minus Present) derived from COSMOS are interpolated to a higher spatial resolution before being used in the vegetation model. These anomalies are combined with a modern climatology to produce climatic fields with high spatial resolution (10′ × 10′). This procedure has the advantage of making apparent relief features smaller than the grid cells of the climate model and, hence, makes easier the comparison with local vegetation data, although it does not really improve the quality of the Tortonian climate reconstruction. The new version of CARAIB was run over Europe at this higher spatial resolution. It calculates the potential distribution of 13 different classes of trees (including cold/cool/warm-temperate, sub-tropical and tropical types), together with their cover fractions, net primary productivities and biomasses. The resulting model vegetation distribution reconstructed for the Tortonian is compared to available palaeovegetation and pollen data. Before performing this comparison, the tree taxa present at the various data sites are assigned to one or several model classes, depending on the identification level of the taxa. If several classes are possible for a taxon, only those that can co-exist with the other tree classes identified at the site are retained. This methodology is similar to the co-existence approach used in palaeoclimatic reconstructions based on vegetation data. It narrows the range of tree types present at the various sites, by suppressing in the data the extreme types, such as the cold boreal/temperate and tropical trees. The method allows a comparison with the model simulation on a presence/absence basis. This comparison provides an overall agreement of 53% between the model and the data, when all sites and tree types are considered. The agreement is high (> 85%) for needle-leaved summergreen boreal/temperate cold trees (Larix sp.) and for tropical trees, intermediate (> 40%) for other boreal/temperate cold trees and for needle-leaved evergreen temperate cool trees, broadleaved summergreen temperate cool trees and broadleaved evergreen warm-temperate trees, and poor (

Understanding climate patterns, with their decisive influence on plant distribution and development, is crucial to understanding the history of vegetation patterns in Europe during the Miocene. This paper presents the detailed analyses of several precipitation parameters, including monthly precipitation of the wettest, driest and warmest months, for five Miocene stages. In conjunction with seasonality of temperature, those parameters provide a meaningful measure of continentality and can help to document Miocene climate changes and patterns and their possible influence on vegetation. Climate reconstructions provided here are entirely based on palaeobotanical material. In total, 169 Miocene floras were selected, including 14 Burdigalian, 41 Langhian, 40 Serravallian, 36 Tortonian, and 38 Messinian localities. All floras were analysed using the Coexistence Approach. The analysis of several precipitation parameters, the statistical inter-correlation of results, and the comparison with modern patterns provides a comprehensive account on Miocene precipitation. Miocene climatic changes after the Mid Miocene Climatic Optimum (MMCO) are evidenced in our data set by three major factors, i.e. (1) increasing seasonality of temperature, (2) changes in the annual distribution of precipitation towards a precipitation peak in summer, and (3) a late increase of longitudinal gradients of precipitation parameters. Evidence of continental climate in Eastern Europe first appears during the Messinian. In addition to changes in temperature, shifts in the annual distribution of precipitation may have played a major role in post-Langhian climate changes. However, the most significant climatic transformations occurred later, from the end of Miocene through to the present. Several authors have described patterns of vegetation development in Europe that are in good agreement with our finding of the first evidence for continental climate in Eastern Europe during the Messinian. Our data do not support an onset of opening of vegetation during the Tortonian or even earlier, as has been described for some parts of Eastern and Southern Europe. Possibly either non climatic parameters influenced such an early development, or our data lack the required resolution and/or spatial coverage to fully decipher the influence of continentality on vegetation and to correlate climate and vegetation statistically. Nevertheless, climatic data that quantify continentality can provide a sound basis for explaining the expansion of grassland in Eurasia.

article i nfo This volume represents the second synthesis of the international open research network NECLIME (Neogene Climate Evolution in Eurasia) that was established in 2000 to study climate change in Eurasia during the Neogene and its impact on ecosystems. The main objectives of NECLIME research are (1) proxy data-based quantitative reconstructions of Neogene climate in Eurasia by means of standardised techniques, (2) the modelling of atmospheric and oceanic circulation and of biomes using Neogene boundary conditions, and (3) the analysis of the interaction between palaeogeography, vegetation and climate. Presently, 94 scientists from 34 countries are NECLIME members, contributing with their published data to a collective data base. Integrating proxies from various sources such as palaeobotany, vertebrate palaeontology, and geology, the following core topics are addressed in the volume: precipitation patterns and landscape opening, the Asian Monsoon Systems, the potential of past climates for the evaluation of future climate change scenarios, as well as short-term change and variability of climate. Highlights of the single contributions are summarised in a proxy data section, and in a modelling section, respectively. It is shown that the integrative approach presented in this volume brings about a much better and much more detailed understanding of Neogene climate dynamics in Eurasia than previously achieved. Even though Neogene climate changes may have regional aspects differing considerably from each other and from the general, global trend, the results from the various proxy and modelling studies consistently show that later Neogene cooling implicated more pronounced latitudinal and longitudinal gradients. On the other hand, the issue reveals a number of problems and questions, resulting from the contrary nature of palaeozoological and palaeobotanical palaeoclimate proxies and modelling results, mainly at a more regional level. The models can not yet explain the relatively warm high latitudes during the Neogene and we still do not sufficiently understand the role of the various boundary conditions such as CO2, palaeogeography, and palaeovegetation in the observed Neogene climate change and its regional differentiation. These apparent uncertainties underline the importance of the study of palaeo-scenarios in order to enhance the reliability of future climate projections.

From the Cretaceous to modern time the earth's climate system has changed repeatedly from a greenhouse to an icehouse. The Miocene appeared as the last warm episode in earth history, prior to the establishment of large Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. Furthermore, the Miocene was characterized by both, large-scale marine transgressions and pronounced episodes of regressions, e.g. opening and closure of marine corridors as well as appearance and disappearance of lakes and swamps. The sea-level changes and instability of the climate system strongly influenced not only marine ecosystems but also the terrestrial biota. To throw new light on the Miocene evolution of European ecosystems and climate dynamics, we compared plant assemblages from southeastern Europe. Palaeogeographically this area is a transitional belt between Tethyan and Paratethyan realms, and it thus constitutes a crucial geographical position when one tries to comprehend the exchange pathways of various floristic elements, appearance and evolution of steppe vegetation, interaction between forest and steppe vegetation, and of course the corresponding climates influencing the vegetation dynamics. Both macro- and microfloristic plant associations were considered in our analysis. Large palaeofloristic and palaeocoenotic transformations occurred during the Miocene. The Early to Middle Miocene flora is rich and diverse in thermophilous elements, which formed polydominant mesophytic to hygromesophytic forests. Early Miocene climate was warm and humid with mean annual temperatures mainly above 16 °C and annual rainfalls over 1000 mm. The Middle Miocene was the warmest period of the whole Miocene, with annual temperatures ranging from 17 °C to 19 °C and winter temperatures from 7 °C to 12.5 °C. Climatic changes after the Miocene climatic optimum caused changes in floristic composition and vegetation structure. The vegetation shows a decreasing trend in abundance of palaeotropic and thermophilous elements, reduction of macrothermic elements, and disappearance of evergreen laurel forests. Together with these changes is a corresponding increase in the role of arctotertiary species in plant communities, and they became dominants in mesophytic forests. The available data indicate that major vegetation changes occur in the late Miocene. This period is characterized by more diverse climatic conditions, which were directed by global climatic changes and probably complicated by regional palaeogeographic reorganizations and tectonic processes. Slight cooling and some drying is recorded for the beginning of the Late Miocene, followed by fluctuations of palaeoclimate parameters observed which display cycling change of humid/dryer and warmer/cooler conditions. Our study provides a new insights on the Miocene vegetation and climate dynamics and evolution in Southeastern Europe.

The Late Miocene belongs to the late phase of the Cenozoic. Climate at that time was still warmer and more humid as compared to today, especially in the high latitudes. Corresponding to the climate situation, palaeobotanical evidences support that vegetation in the high northern latitudes changed significantly from the Late Miocene until today. To quantify the climate impact of this vegetation change, we analyse how vegetation in the high northern latitudes contribute to climate evolution. For that, we perform climate modelling sensitivity experiments for the present and for the Late Miocene (Tortonian, 11–7 Ma). For our present-day sensitivity experiment, we introduce the Tortonian vegetation in the high northern latitudes. For our Tortonian sensitivity experiment, we introduce the modern vegetation on the same grid cells. In the Tortonian and in the present, the modern vegetation leads to a strong cooling of the northern extratropics (up to −4°C). Nevertheless, the meridional heat transports remain nearly unchanged in both cases. In general, the vegetation impact on climate is similar in the Tortonian and in the present. However, some exceptions occur. Due to the Tethys Ocean in the Tortonian, temperatures decline only weakly in eastern Europe and western Asia. In the Tortonian climate, temperatures on the Sahara realm rise (up to +1.5°C), while the temperatures do not change remarkably in the present-day climate. This different behaviour is caused by a stronger and more sensitive hydrological cycle on the Sahara region during the Tortonian.

A sporopollen record recovered from 5.3–1.83 Ma sediments was obtained from the lacustrine Yahu section in the central Qaidam Basin of inner Asia. The results provide evidence for vertical zonation of vegetation on the mountains surrounding the basin during the Pliocene and development of forests on the mountains and grasslands around the lake basin. At 3.6 Ma, herbaceous plants (especially xerophytic plants such as Artemisia , Chenopodiaceae and Ephedra ) increased for a short time within the basin. Xerophytic plants increased continually after 2.6 Ma in the basin, which exhibited steppe vegetation, and the climate became drier than before. These vegetation changes in the region of the Yahu section suggest a process of stepwise aridification in Central Asia's interior since the Pliocene, and it may be related to global cooling and uplift of the Tibetan Plateau.

While pollen is used as a palaeoenvironmental proxy, as of now there are no continuous in situ airborne pollen observations in the Tibetan Plateau. Here we present the first data of airborne pollen collected from September 2005 to August 2006 using a Burkard trap in the Nam Co Basin in central Tibet. The airborne pollen assemblage is dominated by local herbaceous Cyperaceae and Artemisia pollen, and Sabina pollen is the major arboreal taxon. Betulaceae, particularly Alnus , and Pinaceae were the dominant wind-transported pollen over long distances. Seasonal variations in the differences in amounts and taxa over time are evident. There are three clear pollen concentration peaks, in spring, summer, and early autumn, dominated by Sabina , Cyperaceae, and Artemisia , respectively. Consequently the record of pollen deposition is consistent with respective flowering periods, which are mainly a function of climate factors, especially air temperature. Backward air mass trajectory analysis suggests that non-native Alnus pollen may originate in southwestern Tibet or nearby areas. Airborne pollen data will contribute to the knowledge of modern pollen distribution and its relationship to vegetation and climate, and are useful for interpreting fossil pollen records and understanding vegetation response to climate change in the Tibetan Plateau.

The Upper Triassic to Middle Jurassic strata are well exposed and basically continuous in the Junggar Basin of Xinjiang, Northwest China. The Upper Triassic strata include the Huangshanjie Formation (lacustrine facies mainly) and Haojiagou Formation (fluvial to fluvial-swamp facies). The Lower Jurassic consists of the coal-bearing Badaowan Formation (fluvial swamp facies) and Sangonghe Formation (lacustrine facies mainly). The Middle Jurassic is composed of the large coal-bearing Xishanyao Formation (fluvial-swamp facies mainly) and Toutunhe Formation (variegated lacustrine facies). The Late Triassic to early Middle Jurassic floras from the basin consist of four floristic assemblages, including the Danaeopsis-Nanzhangophyllum assemblage (Ass. I, Carnian-Norian) and Glossophyllum-Cycadocarpidium assemblage (Ass. II, Norian-Rhaetian), belonging to the Late Triassic “Northern China Flora” (Danaeopsis-Bernoullia Flora), and the Neocalamites-Marattiopsis assemblage (Ass. III, Early Jurassic) and Coniopteris-Raphaelia assemblage (Ass. IV, Middle Jurassic), belonging to the Early–Middle Jurassic “Siberian Flora” (Continental Floristic Province). The palaeoclimatic changes basically consisted of warming up and moistening from the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic, while the climate of the early Middle Jurassic might have been warm–temperate and humid, which was favourable for coal formation. The lower Middle Jurassic strata appear to be the largest sedimentary mineral resources for coal, oil and natural gas in the Junggar Basin area. Two new taxa from the Upper Jurassic are described, Danaeopsis tenuinervis Sun, Mosbrugger et Li sp. nov and Thinnfeldia? mirisecta Sun, Mosbrugger et Li sp. nov.

To compare species spatial turnover in urban and rural protected areas, we calculated turnover from presence-absence tables for each pair of protected areas (i) within the city of Halle, i.e. urban protected areas, (ii) within the district of Saalkreis that surrounds Halle, i.e. rural protected areas, and (iii) for each pair of urban and rural protected areas. We stated that we used the bsim similarity index as given in Lennon et al. (2001) and Koleff et al. (2003)

The Junggar Basin in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (NW China) comprises an almost continuous sequence of continental Mesozoic sediments. The basin was positioned at a latitude of about 45°N from the Permian onwards and existed almost during the entire Mesozoic. As such, it is well suited for studies on palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental changes during this period as tectonic movements of the basin between different climate zones can largely be excluded. Current knowledge about Triassic and Jurassic palaeoclimate development is complemented by new lithological data from the southern part of the basin, ranging from the Late Triassic (Norian) up to the latest Jurassic (Tithonan). Preliminary palynostratigraphical data demonstrate that the base of the Middle Jurassic probably does not coincide with lithostratigraphical formation boundaries (i.e., boundary between Sangonghe and Xishanyiao Formation), but lies within the lower part of the Sangonghe Formation. Humid climates dominated during the Triassic and the Early Jurassic, with only a few drier excursions, especially in upland regions. In the northeastern part of the Junggar Basin, the oldest evidence of seasonally dry climatic conditions is recognized during the latest Early Jurassic, and the first basin-wide evidence of seasonally dry conditions is recognized in the middle Middle Jurassic. A seasonally dry climate was permanently established in the basin from the beginning of the Late Jurassic onwards.

We outline here an approach for understanding the biology of climate change, one that integrates data at multiple spatial and temporal scales. Taxon-free trait analysis, or "ecometrics," is based on the idea that the distribution in a community of ecomorphological traits such as tooth structure, limb proportions, body mass, leaf shape, incubation temperature, claw shape, any aspect of anatomy or physiology can be measured across some subset of the organisms in a community. Regardless of temporal or spatial scale, traits are the means by which organisms interact with their environment, biotic and abiotic. Ecometrics measures these interactions by focusing on traits which are easily measurable, whose structure is closely related to their function, and whose function interacts directly with local environment. Ecometric trait distributions are thus a comparatively universal metric for exploring systems dynamics at all scales. The main challenge now is to move beyond investigating how future climate change will affect the distribution of organisms and how it will impact ecosystem services and to shift the perspective to ask how biotic systems interact with changing climate in general, and how climate change affects the interactions within and between the components of the whole biotic-physical system. We believe that it is possible to provide believable, quantitative answers to these questions. Because of this we have initiated an IUBS program iCCB (integrative Climate Change Biology).

A drill core (1.8 m; 34 samples) was taken out of a swamp near Nam Co (Tibet, China) for palynological analysis. C14-Dating of the cores sediment at 3 different layers led to an numerical core age of about 8000 BP and the palynomorph content of prepared samples enabled reconstruction of the vegetation and climatic history of Nam Co Area. Pollen of Alpine Steppe elements together with Cyperaceae dominates the palynoflora reflecting the existing vegetation units around the lake throughout the investigated time span. Due to availability of water/precipitation, the different vegetation units extended or had to retreat, and hence the amount of their pollen increased or decreased. The presence of arboreal plants, verified by charcoal particles, suggest the existence of woodlands in the lake's surrounding area until possibly human made fires changed the environment over time. Holocene climate history around Nam Co shows several phases of a strengthening/weakening or even an interruption of monsoonal activity. Changing conditions between dry and humid evolved from 8017 BP until 4800 BP. A mostly humid and relative stable system occurred from 4800 until 700 BP whereas the last 700 years are characterized by drier conditions according to fluctuating monsoonal activity. Humid or arid periods have been different in duration and intensity. The interaction of both parts of the monsoonal system, the South Asian Monsoon and the East Asian Monsoon, influenced the climatic conditions around Nam Co.

The repeated isolation of the Atlantic Ocean during the Messinian led to at least the partial desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea and to the deposition of massive evaporites (Messinian Salinity Crisis). Overall, proxy data do not indicate dramatic climatic changes in the Mediterranean region for the time of the Messinian Salinity Crisis but a constant climate seems to be unrealistic at first sight. To analyse the climate response to environmental changes in the Mediterranean region during the Messinian Salinity Crisis, we perform climate modelling sensitivity experiments. As a reference base, we use a Tortonian simulation (TORT) and simulate three Messinian sensitivity scenarios: (1) the Mediterranean Sea surface 1500 m lower than the normal sea level (MSC LOWSEA); (2) the Mediterranean basin completely desiccated, the resulting land surface 1500 m lower and covered by grassland vegetation (MSC LOWGRASS); and (3) the Mediterranean Sea simply replaced by grassland vegetation (MSC GRASS). All sensitivity experiments represent extreme scenarios for analysis of general patterns of Messinian climate change. In MSC LOWSEA, mean annual temperatures in the Mediterranean basin increase by + 2 °C, and surrounding regions get cooler by up to −3 °C as compared to TORT. The lowering of the Mediterranean Sea level increases the annual precipitation in the south-western part of Europe and in north-western Africa (up to + 1000 mm/a). In MSC LOWGRASS as compared to TORT, the Mediterranean basin strongly heats up by + 7 °C, while temperatures in the surrounding areas do not change more than ± 2 °C. The precipitation in the Mediterranean basin significantly decreases (up to −600 mm/a). Precipitation in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean basin does not change substantially in MSC LOWGRASS, but rainfall in W-Africa increases up to + 600 mm/a. In MSC GRASS as compared to TORT, temperatures in the Mediterranean region increase by + 4 °C. This is twice as high as the temperature increase which resulted from lowering the Mediterranean Sea surface in MSC LOWSEA. Annual rainfall over the Mediterranean basin in MSC GRASS is −400 mm/a lower than the rainfall in TORT. Proxy-based climate reconstructions for the time of the Messinian Salinity Crisis indicate no dramatic climatic changes around the Mediterranean. In contrast to this, for eastern N-Africa and Eastern Europe climate changes are indicated. The MSC LOWSEA and MSC LOWGRASS sensitivity experiments show that the strong environmental changes in the Mediterranean realm during the MSC did not necessarily cause strong climatic changes at the margins of the Mediterranean basin. Therefore, the present modelling studies are in agreement with climate proxy data from the Mediterranean region. Additionally, our results principally agree with the climate changes inferred from the fossil record of Central and Eastern Europe. For eastern N-Africa, our modelling studies contradict proxy data. Based on our results, weak climatic changes indicated by the fossil record at the Mediterranean coastlines are realistic.

The climate cooling and vegetation changes in the Miocene/Pliocene are generally well documented by various proxy data. Some important ecosystem changes occurred at that time. Palaeobotanical evidence suggests that the Sahara desert first appeared in the Pliocene, whereas in the Miocene North Africa was green. In the present study, we investigate the Late Miocene climate response to the appearance of the Sahara desert from a climate modelling sensitivity experiment. We compare a model experiment, which includes a full set of Late Miocene boundary conditions, with another one using the same boundary conditions except that the North African vegetation refers to the present-day situation. Our sensitivity study demonstrates that the introduction of the Sahara desert leads to a cooling and an aridification in Africa. In addition, we observe teleconnection patterns related to the North African desertification at around the Miocene/Pliocene boundary. From our sensitivity experiment, we observe that the Sahara contributes to a cooling in Central Asia and in North America. As compared to hypsodonty data for Central Asia, an increased aridity is underestimated in the Sahara experiment. Finally, we observe that the introduction of the Sahara leads to a cooling in the northern high latitudes. Hence, our sensitivity experiment indicates that the appearance of the Sahara desert is one piece to better understand Late Cenozoic climate cooling being most pronounced in the high latitudes.

Fossil charcoal, as direct evidence of palaeowildfires, has repeatedly been reported from several plant-bearing deposits from the Late Palaeozoic of the Northern Hemisphere. In contrast charcoal reports from the Late Palaeozoic deposits of the Southern Hemisphere are relatively rare in comparison to the Northern Hemisphere. Although the presence of pyrogenic coal macerals has repeatedly been reported from Late Palaeozoic coals from South America, no detailed anatomical investigations of such material have been published so far. Here is presented an anatomical analysis of charcoal originating from Early Permian sediments of the Quiteria Outcrop, Rio Bonito Formation, Parana Basin, located in the central-eastern portion of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. This charcoal comes from two different coaly facies, and it was possible to scrutinize between three types, based on anatomical characters of the charcoal. Two of these charcoal types can be correlated to gymnosperm woods, and the other type corresponds to strongly permineralized bark with characteristic features of lycopsids. The presence of charcoal in different facies, ranging from parautochtonous to allochtonous origin, indicates that different vegetation types, i.e. plants which grew under wet conditions in the lowland as well as in the more dry hinterland, have experienced wildfires. Taking into account previous petrographic and lithological analyses from the facies in which the charcoal occurs and from the conditions of the wood and bark fragments, it was possible to speculate that the intensity of such wildfires most probably corresponds to forest-crown fires. Moreover, it is possible to state that wildfires have been a more or less common element in distinct Late Palaeozoic terrestrial ecosystems in the South American part of Gondwana. The data support previous assumptions on the occurrence of wildfires in the Early Permian of the Parana Basin which were based solely on coal-petrographic data.

The Early–Middle Eocene palynoflora and paleoclimate of Changchang Basin, Hainan Island, South China, is described in the present paper and is compared with that of the Middle–Late Eocene, Hunchun City, Jilin Province, North China. The nearest living relatives (NLRs) of the recovered palynotaxa suggest a subtropical evergreen or deciduous broad-leaved forest at the center of the basin but a temperate evergreen or deciduous broad-leaved forest and needle-leaved forest growing in the peripheral part of the basin. Based on the climatic preferences of the NLRs, the climate in the Changchang Basin during the Early–Middle Eocene was warm and humid subtropical with a mean annual temperature of 14.2–19.8°C, a mean temperature of the warmest month of 22.5–29.1°C, a mean temperature of the coldest month of 1.7–11.9°C, a difference of temperature between coldest and warmest months of 12.1–24.6°C, a mean annual precipitation of 784.7–1,113.3 mm, a mean maximum monthly precipitation of 141.5–268.1 mm and a mean minimum monthly precipitation of 6.9–14.1 mm. A comparison of the palynoflora and paleoclimate between the Changchang Basin and Hunchun City, suggests essentially a similar climate in South and North China during Eocene time in contrast to the oceanic tropical climate in South China and cool dry temperate climate in North China as at present.