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Background: Hypertension is a well-known risk factor for atrial fibrillation (AF) and stoke, but data on the interaction between systolic blood pressure (SBP) and effects of AF screening are lacking., Methods: The LOOP Study randomized AF-naïve individuals aged 70 to 90 years with additional stroke risk factors to either screening with implantable loop recorder (ILR) and anticoagulation initiation upon detection of AF episodes ≥6 minutes, or usual care. In total, 5997 participants with available baseline SBP measurements were included in this substudy. Outcomes were analyzed according to the time-to-first-event principle using cause-specific Cox models., Results: The hazard ratio of stroke or systemic arterial embolism for ILR versus control decreased with increasing SBP. ILR screening yielded a 44% risk reduction of stroke or systemic arterial embolism among participants with SBP ≥150 mm Hg (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.56 [0.37-0.83]). Within the ILR group, SBP≥150 mm Hg was associated with a higher incidence of AF episodes ≥24 hours than lower SBP (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.70 [1.08-2.69]) but not with the overall occurrence of AF (adjusted P >0.05)., Conclusions: The impact of AF screening on thromboembolic events increased with increasing blood pressure. SBP≥150 mm Hg was associated with a >1.5-fold increased risk of AF episodes ≥24 hours, along with an almost 50% risk reduction of stroke or systemic arterial embolism by ILR screening compared to lower blood pressure. These findings should be considered hypothesis-generating and warrant further study., Registration: URL: https://www., Clinicaltrials: gov; Unique Identifier: NCT02036450.

Four-dimensional (4D) echocardiography may provide more accurate estimations of left atrial (LA) volumes than 2-dimensional (2D) measures. We sought to compare the concordance of a novel 4D LA quantification software versus 2D echocardiography against cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR). This was a multimodality imaging substudy of a randomized clinical trial (the LOOP study). Elderly participants with stroke risk factors were included. A subgroup of this study population underwent transthoracic echocardiography (n = 1441) and a subset underwent CMR within two weeks (n = 73). The mean age of the echocardiographic study population was 74 years and 54% were men. The maximal LA volume (LAVmax) was 47 mL by 2D, 52 mL by 4D, and 104 mL by CMR. While 2D echocardiography showed a moderate correlation with 4D (R 2  = 0.51) it yielded significantly lower values for LAVmax with a mean difference of 4.5 ± 11.9 mL, p < 0.001. 4D echocardiography correlated strongly with CMR measurements (R 2  = 0.70), whereas 2D echocardiography showed a moderate correlation (R 2  = 0.53). However, both modalities systematically underestimated LAVmax largely compared to CMR (2D vs. CMR: - 54.9 ± 21.3 mL; 4D vs. CMR: - 49.7 ± 18.6 mL). Similar observations were made for minimal LA volume and LA volume before atrial contraction. Analyses time by 4D was shorter than for 2D (90 ± 11 vs. 118 ± 16 s, p < 0.001). Intra- and interobserver variability was lower for 4D than 2D. Four-dimensional echocardiography is faster, more reproducible, and correlates more closely to CMR than 2D echocardiography. Both 4D and 2D echocardiography systematically underestimates LA volumes compared to CMR, emphasizing that values of LA volumes are not interchangeable between echocardiography and CMR., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V.)

Growing evidence suggests a consistent association between atrial fibrillation (AF) and cognitive impairment and dementia that is independent of clinical stroke. This report from the AF-SCREEN International Collaboration summarizes the evidence linking AF to cognitive impairment and dementia. It provides guidance on the investigation and management of dementia in patients with AF on the basis of best available evidence. The document also addresses suspected pathophysiologic mechanisms and identifies knowledge gaps for future research. Whereas AF and dementia share numerous risk factors, the association appears to be independent of these variables. Nevertheless, the evidence remains inconclusive regarding a direct causal effect. Several pathophysiologic mechanisms have been proposed, some of which are potentially amenable to early intervention, including cerebral microinfarction, AF-related cerebral hypoperfusion, inflammation, microhemorrhage, brain atrophy, and systemic atherosclerotic vascular disease. The mitigating role of oral anticoagulation in specific subgroups (eg, low stroke risk, short duration or silent AF, after successful AF ablation, or atrial cardiopathy) and the effect of rhythm versus rate control strategies remain unknown. Likewise, screening for AF (in cognitively normal or cognitively impaired patients) and screening for cognitive impairment in patients with AF are debated. The pathophysiology of dementia and therapeutic strategies to reduce cognitive impairment warrant further investigation in individuals with AF. Cognition should be evaluated in future AF studies and integrated with patient-specific outcome priorities and patient preferences. Further large-scale prospective studies and randomized trials are needed to establish whether AF is a risk factor for cognitive impairment, to investigate strategies to prevent dementia, and to determine whether screening for unknown AF followed by targeted therapy might prevent or reduce cognitive impairment and dementia.

Aims: To study the relationship between subclinical atrial fibrillation (AF) and changes in cognitive function in a large cohort of individuals with stroke risk factors., Methods: Individuals with no prior AF diagnosis but with risk factors for stroke were recruited to undergo annual cognitive assessment with the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) along with implantable loop recorder (ILR) monitoring for AF for 3 years. If AF episodes lasting ≥6 minutes were detected, oral anticoagulation (OAC) treatment was initiated., Results: A total of 1194 participants (55.2 % men, mean age 74.5 (±3.9)) had a combined duration of heart rhythm monitoring of ≈1.3 million days. Among these, 339 participants (28.3%) had adjudicated AF, with a median AF burden of 0.072% (0.02, 0.39), and 324 (96%) initiated OAC. When stratifying the participants into AF burden groups (No AF, AF low (AF burden <0.25%), and AF high, (AF burden >0.25%)), only participants in the AF low group had a decrease in MoCA score over time (P = .03), although this was not significant after adjustment for stroke risk factors. A subgroup analysis of 175 participants (14.6%) with a MoCA <26 at 3 years found no association to AF diagnosis or burden., Conclusions: In a high-risk population, subclinical AF detected by continuous monitoring and subsequently treated with OAC was not associated with a significant change in MoCA score over a 3-year period., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Aims: The aim of this study was to investigate the association between within-individual changes in physical activity and onset of atrial fibrillation (AF)., Methods and Results: A total of 1410 participants from the general population (46.2% women, mean age 74.7 ± 4.1 years) with risk factors but with no prior AF diagnosis underwent continuous monitoring for AF episodes along with daily accelerometric assessment of physical activity using an implantable loop recorder during ≈3.5 years. The combined duration of monitoring was ≈1.6 million days, where 10 851 AF episodes lasting ≥60 min were detected in 361 participants (25.6%) with a median of 5 episodes (2, 25) each. The median daily physical activity was 112 (66, 168) min/day. A dynamic parameter describing within-individual changes in daily physical activity, i.e. average daily activity in the last week compared to the previous 100 days, was computed and used to model the onset of AF. A 1-h decrease in average daily physical activity was associated with AF onset the next day [odds ratio 1.24 (1.18-1.31)]. This effect was modified by overall level of activity (P < 0.001 for interaction), and the signal was strongest in the tertile of participants with lowest activity overall [low: 1.62 (1.41-1.86), mid: 1.27 (1.16-1.39), and high: 1.10 (1.01-1.19)]., Conclusions: Within-individual changes in physical activity are associated with the onset of AF episodes as detected by continuous monitoring in a high-risk population. For each person, a 1-h decrease in daily physical activity during the last week increased the odds of AF onset the next day by ≈25%, while the strongest association was seen in the group with the lowest activity overall., Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT02036450., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology.)

Occult atrial fibrillation (AF) is a leading cause of stroke of unclear cause. The optimal approach to secondary stroke prevention for these patients remains elusive. The term embolic stroke of undetermined source (ESUS) was coined to describe ischemic strokes in which the radiographic features demonstrate territorial infarcts resembling those seen in patients with confirmed sources of embolism but without a clear source of embolism detected. It was assumed that patients with ESUS had a high rate of occult AF and would benefit from treatment with direct oral anticoagulants, which are at least as effective as vitamin K antagonists for secondary stroke prevention in patients with AF, but with a much lower risk of intracerebral hemorrhage. Two recent large randomized trials failed to show superiority of direct oral anticoagulants over aspirin in ESUS patients. These findings prompt a reexamination of the ESUS concept, with the goal of improving specificity for detecting patients with a cardioembolic cause. Based on the negative trial results, there is renewed interest in the role of long-term cardiac monitoring for AF in patients who fit the current ESUS definition, as well as the clinical implication of detecting AF. Ongoing trials are exploring these questions. Current ESUS definitions do not accurately detect the patients who should be prescribed direct oral anticoagulants, potentially because occult AF is less common than expected in these patients and/or anticoagulants may be less beneficial in patients with ESUS but no AF than they are for patients with stroke with established AF. More specific criteria to identify patients who may be at higher risk for occult AF and reduce their risk of subsequent stroke have been developed and are being tested in ongoing clinical trials.

EQ-5D is a generic instrument to measure health-related quality of life. In 2009, a new version, EQ-5D-5L, was introduced as an attempt to reduce ceiling effects and improve sensitivity to small changes over time. The objective of this study was to assess the measurement properties of the EQ-5D-5L instrument compared to the EQ-5D-3L instrument in an elderly general population with a moderate to a high degree of comorbidity. A subgroup of participants in a large clinical trial completed the EQ-5D-3L and the EQ-5D-5L questionnaires. Based on the collected data, we tested for feasibility and ceiling and floor effects. Furthermore, we assessed the redistribution properties of the responses and examined the level of inconsistency, informativity, and convergent validity. A total of 1002 persons diagnosed with hypertension, diabetes, heart failure, and/or previous stroke completed both the EQ-5D-3L and the EQ-5D-5L questionnaires. The overall ceiling effect decreased from 46% with the EQ-5D-3L to 30% with the EQ-5D-5L and absolute and relative informativity were higher for EQ-5D-5L, and there was a stronger correlation between EQ-5D-5L and EQ VAS. The EQ-5D-5L seemed to perform better than the EQ-5D-3L in terms of feasibility, ceiling effect, discriminatory power, and convergent validity. The overall ceiling effect was higher than that found in patient samples in previous studies but lower than the one found in population studies.

Objectives: The authors hypothesized that left atrial (LA) fibrosis was associated with incident atrial fibrillation (AF) as detected by continuous long-term monitoring in an at-risk population., Background: LA late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) measured with cardiac magnetic resonance is emerging as a marker of atrial fibrosis and has been associated with worse outcomes in AF ablation procedures; however, the prognostic value of LA LGE for incident AF remains unknown., Methods: Cardiac magnetic resonance, including measurement of left ventricular and LA volumes and function, as well as left ventricular extracellular volume fraction and LA LGE, was acquired in 68 patients aged at least 70 years with risk factors for stroke. All included patients received an implantable loop recorder and were continuously monitored for previously unknown AF. Incident AF was adjudicated by senior cardiologists., Results: Patients were monitored for AF with an implantable loop recorder during a median of 41 (interquartile range: 7) months. AF episodes lasting ≥6 min were detected in 32 patients (47%), and 16 patients (24%) experienced AF episodes lasting ≥5.5 h. In Cox regression analyses adjusted for sex, age, and comorbidities, we found that LA volumes and function and LA LGE were independently associated with incident AF. For LA LGE, the hazard ratios for time to AF episodes lasting ≥6 min and ≥5.5 h were 1.40 (95% CI: 1.03 to 1.89) per 10 cm 2 increase (p = 0.03) and 1.63 (95% CI: 1.11 to 2.40) per 10 cm 2 increase (p = 0.01), respectively. LA LGE was significantly associated with high burden of AF. The addition of LA LGE to a multivariable risk prediction model for incident AF significantly increased the predictive value., Conclusions: Extent of LA fibrosis measured by LA LGE was significantly associated with incident AF detected by implantable loop recorder. (Atrial Fibrillation Detected by Continuous ECG Monitoring [LOOP]; NCT02036450)., (Copyright © 2020 American College of Cardiology Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Aims: We aimed to investigate whether left atrial (LA) markers from cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) were able to predict atrial fibrillation (AF) in elderly patients with risk factors for stroke., Methods and Results: At baseline, 203 participants with stroke risk factors but without history of AF underwent advanced CMR and received an implantable loop recorder. During a median of 40 (37-42) months of continuous monitoring, incident AF was detected in 79 patients (39%). With regards to CMR markers, a steep increase in incidence rate of AF was seen with LA maximum volume (LAmax) above 55 mL/m2, LA minimum volume (LAmin) above 30 mL/m2, LA total emptying fraction (LA TEF) below 45%, LA active emptying fraction (LA AEF) below 37%, LA strain S below 25%, LA strain A below 17%, and LA strain rate A above -1.7 s-1. After multivariate adjustment, the above-mentioned CMR markers remained associated with AF incidence: hazard ratio (95% confidence interval) 1.25 (1.06-1.48) and 1.51 (1.22-1.87) per 10 mL/m2 increase of LAmax and LAmin, respectively, 1.49 (1.26-1.76) and 1.46 CI (1.25-1.71) per 5% decrease in LA TEF and LA AEF, respectively, 1.23 (1.05-1.44) and 1.56 (1.18-2.06) per 5% decrease in LA strain S and A, respectively, and 2.06 (1.31-3.23) per s-1 increase in LA strain rate A. In prediction analyses, LA functional indices increased area under the receiver operating characteristic curve significantly., Conclusion: The risk of AF, including asymptomatic AF, increases significantly with increasing LA volumes and worsening LA function., (Published on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology. All rights reserved. © The Author(s) 2020. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Recent studies have suggested a high prevalence of subclinical atrial fibrillation (AF) in various patient populations, and interest in AF screening has increased. However, knowledge about episode duration is scarce, and risk factors for short or long subclinical AF episodes have yet to be recognized. The aim of the study was to assess AF by long-term continuous screening and to investigate predictors of episodes lasting ≥6 minutes, ≥5.5 hours, or ≥24 hours, respectively., Methods: A total of 597 patients aged ≥70 years and diagnosed with ≥1 of hypertension, diabetes, previous stroke, or heart failure were recruited from the general population to receive implantable loop recorder with remote monitoring. Exclusion criteria included history of AF or cardiac implantable electronic device. AF episodes were adjudicated by senior cardiologists., Results: During 40 (37; 42) months of continuous monitoring, AF was detected in 209 (35%) of the patients. The cumulative incidences at 3 years were 33.8% (30.2%-37.8%), 16.1% (13.4%-19.4%), and 5.7% (4.1%-7.9%) for AF episodes lasting ≥6 minutes, ≥5.5 hours, and ≥24 hours, respectively. Slower resting sinus rate and higher body mass index, N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide, and troponin T at baseline were independently associated with AF detection. Addition of these markers to a model of sex, age, and comorbidities improved prediction of AF episodes ≥24 hours (time-dependent area under the receiver operating characteristic curve 79% vs 65%, P = .037)., Conclusions: A considerable burden of previously unknown AF was detected when long-term monitoring was applied in at-risk patients. Biomarkers were associated with AF incidence and improved prediction of long AF episodes., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (PAF) may be the cause of a substantial part of cryptogenic strokes (CS). Echocardiography could assist risk stratification for PAF to select patients in need of prolonged rhythm monitoring. We aimed to assess the value of left atrial (LA) strain and a revised diastolic dysfunction (DDF) model with LA strain for predicting PAF. This was a prospective study of 56 CS patients who had a cardiac monitor implanted for 3 year monitoring for PAF, and an echocardiogram performed prior to monitoring. Conventional echocardiography, global longitudinal strain (GLS) and LA strain were performed. LA speckle tracking provided the LA reservoir strain (LAs). Patients were stratified into high versus low LAs by ROC curves (28.2%), and this cut-off was used to refine DDF grading. During follow-up of median 20 months, 13 (23%) patients were diagnosed with PAF. No conventional echocardiographic parameters differed between patients who developed PAF and those without PAF. However, LAs was significantly impaired in PAF patients (LAs: 30 vs. 27% for non-PAF and PAF, p = 0.046). Low LAs significantly predicted PAF independent of LA volume and GLS [OR 5.88 (1.30; 26.55), p = 0.021]. Revised DDF grading significantly predicted PAF, even when adjusted for the CHADS 2 risk-score (OR 1.88 [1.01;3.50], per increase in DDF grade, p for trend = 0.047), which was not the case for conventional DDF grading. In conclusion, LAs associates with PAF independent of GLS and LA size, and may be used to improve the performance of DDF grading for identifying PAF in CS patients.

Cardiac thromboembolism attributed to atrial fibrillation (AF) is responsible for up to one-third of ischemic strokes. Stroke may be the first manifestation of previously undetected AF. Given the efficacy of oral anticoagulants in preventing AF-related ischemic strokes, strategies of searching for AF after a stroke using ECG monitoring followed by oral anticoagulation (OAC) treatment have been proposed to prevent recurrent cardioembolic strokes. This white paper by experts from the AF-SCREEN International Collaboration summarizes existing evidence and knowledge gaps on searching for AF after a stroke by using ECG monitoring. New AF can be detected by routine plus intensive ECG monitoring in approximately one-quarter of patients with ischemic stroke. It may be causal, a bystander, or neurogenically induced by the stroke. AF after a stroke is a risk factor for thromboembolism and a strong marker for atrial myopathy. After acute ischemic stroke, patients should undergo 72 hours of electrocardiographic monitoring to detect AF. The diagnosis requires an ECG of sufficient quality for confirmation by a health professional with ECG rhythm expertise. AF detection rate is a function of monitoring duration and quality of analysis, AF episode definition, interval from stroke to monitoring commencement, and patient characteristics including old age, certain ECG alterations, and stroke type. Markers of atrial myopathy (eg, imaging, atrial ectopy, natriuretic peptides) may increase AF yield from monitoring and could be used to guide patient selection for more intensive/prolonged poststroke ECG monitoring. Atrial myopathy without detected AF is not currently sufficient to initiate OAC. The concept of embolic stroke of unknown source is not proven to identify patients who have had a stroke benefitting from empiric OAC treatment. However, some embolic stroke of unknown source subgroups (eg, advanced age, atrial enlargement) might benefit more from non-vitamin K-dependent OAC therapy than aspirin. Fulfilling embolic stroke of unknown source criteria is an indication neither for empiric non-vitamin K-dependent OAC treatment nor for withholding prolonged ECG monitoring for AF. Clinically diagnosed AF after a stroke or a transient ischemic attack is associated with significantly increased risk of recurrent stroke or systemic embolism, in particular, with additional stroke risk factors, and requires OAC rather than antiplatelet therapy. The minimum subclinical AF duration required on ECG monitoring poststroke/transient ischemic attack to recommend OAC therapy is debated.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) increases the rate of stroke 5-fold, and AF-related strokes have a poorer prognosis compared with non-AF-related strokes. Atrial fibrillation and stroke constitute an intensifying challenge, and health care organizations are calling for awareness on the topic. Previous studies have demonstrated that AF is often asymptomatic and consequently undiagnosed. The implantable loop recorder (ILR) allows for continuous, long-term electrocardiographic monitoring with daily transmission of arrhythmia information, potentially leading to improvement in AF detection and stroke prevention., Methods: The LOOP study is an investigator-initiated, randomized controlled trial with 6,000 participants randomized 3:1 to a control group or to receive an ILR with continuous electrocardiographic monitoring. Participants are identified from Danish registries and are eligible for inclusion if 70years or older and previously diagnosed as having at least one of the following conditions: hypertension, diabetes mellitus, heart failure, or previous stroke. Exclusion criteria include history of AF and current oral anticoagulation treatment. When an AF episode lasting ≥6minutes is detected, oral anticoagulation will be initiated according to guidelines. Expected follow-up is 4years. The primary end point is time to stroke or systemic embolism, whereas secondary end points include time to AF diagnosis and death., Conclusion: The LOOP study will evaluate health benefits and cost-effectiveness of ILR as a screening tool for AF to prevent stroke in patients at risk. Secondary objectives include identification of risk factors for the development of AF and characterization of arrhythmias in the population. The trial holds the potential to influence the future of stroke prevention., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Cerebral aneurysm following a cardiac myxoma is a rare neurological complication. We report a 50-year-old man who developed cerebral aneurysms one year after resection of a cardiac myxoma. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain showed features of intracranial haemorrhage. Digital subtraction angiography showed several fusiform intracranial aneurysms bilaterally in the middle cerebral artery. Finally, we discuss potential molecular mechanisms of the development of myxomatous aneurysms.

The identification of strategies by which the central nervous system (CNS) can transform itself in response to injury has incited the systematic exploration of methods to enhance neurological recovery after CNS injury. Several pharmaceuticals have been shown to promote such recovery; however, more rigorous clinical trials are necessary to establish their clinical relevance. The major impediment for these strategies in the clinical arena is the astounding heterogeneity surrounding neuroplasticity and regeneration. Tolerance to injury and varied rates of recovery are likely governed by genetic and environmental factors that remain largely elusive. The extraordinary complexity of the neural networks in the CNS impedes the assessment of 'plain' pharmacological interventions in therapeutic trials. 'Proof-of-principle' studies of pharmacological interventions enhancing neuroplasticity or regeneration may therefore at first focus on surrogate markers, such as functional MRI, magnetoencephalography and diffusion tensor imaging, or investigate seemingly more uniform systems, such as spinal cord injuries. The discovery that experimental adult CNS lesions can essentially regenerate has rejected the conviction that adult axon injury is always permanent and spurred research into determining whether the circumstances under which such regeneration occurs can be created in human CNS injury. The hostility of the microenvironment preventing axonal regrowth has been linked to key molecular targets involving myelin-associated factors and glial scar components. While the mechanisms involved are better understood now and potential therapeutic targets are identified, the crucial question whether manipulating the molecular regulation of axonal repair is feasible and will benefit patients remains uncertain. While factual repair of brain tissue may still be years away, research into the mechanisms of adaptation after brain injury offers more tangible return on the short run., (Copyright © 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Stroke is a leading cause of long-term disability with early accelerated followed by gradual recovery during the first 6 months after the ictus. The most important mechanism concerning early recovery is thought to be brain plasticity provided by anatomical and functional reorganization of the central nervous system after injury. Recent advances in noninvasive, functional brain imaging techniques provided some insight indicating the contribution of ipsilateral uncrossed corticospinal tracts in motor recovery after stroke. Since motor tracts vary considerably among subjects, the ratio of contralateral corticospinal tract fibers and their interhemispheric control versus the amount and function of ipsilateral corticospinal tract fibers may affect the scale of motor recovery after stroke. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms of motor recovery after stroke in humans., (Copyright © 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Suicide after stroke is a grievous occurrence. Since the majority of cases under study had shown signs of recovery from stroke, persons surrounding these patients were severely shocked by these suicides. Six patients who attempted suicide within six months after stroke were investigated to determine factors following stroke that relate to suicide in order to prevent future post-stroke suicides. Clinical findings in these six cases were retrospectively analyzed in collaboration with stroke neurologists and coworkers caring for these patients. Four of six patients had sustained a recent infarction extending from the temporal cortex to the parietal cortex. Four of six patients showed depression, and five of six patients showed moderate disability after stroke. Physicians should carefully observe patients with infarction extending from the temporal cortex to the parietal cortex, depression and moderate disability, in order to prevent suicidal behavior.

Purpose: The aim of this statement is to present current and comprehensive recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of acute spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage., Methods: A formal literature search of Medline was performed through the end date of August 2006. The results of this search were complemented by additional articles on related issues known to the writing committee. Data were synthesized with the use of evidence tables. The American Heart Association Stroke Council's Levels of Evidence grading algorithm was used to grade each recommendation. Prerelease review of the draft guideline was performed by 5 expert peer reviewers and by the members of the Stroke Council Leadership Committee. It is intended that this guideline be fully updated in 3 years' time., Results: Evidence-based guidelines are presented for the diagnosis of intracerebral hemorrhage, the management of increased arterial blood pressure and intracranial pressure, the treatment of medical complications of intracerebral hemorrhage, and the prevention of recurrent intracerebral hemorrhage. Recent trials of recombinant factor VII to slow initial bleeding are discussed. Recommendations for various surgical approaches for treatment of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage are presented. Finally, withdrawal-of-care and end-of-life issues in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage are examined.

Many questions remain about specific strategies to prevent first or subsequent stroke: Do statins prevent stroke? Which antithrombotic drugs are best? What is the best way to treat carotid stenosis? We review current evidence on drug therapy and surgical options, addressing key stroke risk factors: ie, hypertension, atherosclerosis, atrial fibrillation, patent foramen ovale, aortic stenosis, and carotid stenosis.

Preliminary clinical trials suggest that therapeutic hypothermia might improve the outcomes of patients with acute stroke. Definitive trials are under way.