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The find of feathers and of skeletal remains of a small passeriforme bird in feces of the black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix L.) is described. These remains are thought to be of eaten carrion.

Radio tracking is practised in ecological research on red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), free roaming farm cat ( Felis catus ), beech marten ( Martes foina ), polecat ( Putorius putorius ), European hare ( Lepus europaeus ), harbor seal ( Phoca vitulina ), black grouse ( Lyrurus tetrix ) and little owl ( Athene noctua ). Transmission at 27 MHz was used for land mammals and birds because of low attenuation of the signal by obstacles, and at 154 MHz for the harbor seal because of longer range signal capabilities. Schematics and attachment of the transmitters are described. Data concerning the batteries and the antennas are given. For tracking wide ranging animals, a receiver was developed, equipped with digital stabilization of the VFO including a signal strength- and tuning-indicator with memory. Applications, properties of the equipment, methods applied, reliability of the transmitters and the influence of capturing and radio tracking on the animals' behavior are dealt with. more...

Koreans form a race with a single language and a relatively homogenous gene pool. Anthropologically the cephalic index of the Korean show considerable difference from that of the Chinese and the Japanese. The average cranial capacity of a modern Korean man, about 1490 cm3, is classified as aristocephalic [23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. more...

The boreal zone of the northern hemisphere is a circum-polar belt around the Arctic, lying south of the polar forest boundary (see Fig. 8.1). In North America it covers approximately 70° of longitude, in Eurasia slightly more than 160° of longitude (Fig. 8.2). It may be considered as a global unit with a major interruption by the Atlantic Ocean and a smaller one by the Bering Sea. more...

Population dynamics for voles (Cricetidae), Tengmalm's owl (Aegolius funereus (L.)), red fox (Vulpes vulpes (L.)) willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus (L.)), black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix (L.)), capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus L.), hazel hen (Tetrastes bonasia (L.)), mountain hare (Lepus timidus L.) and tularemia (Francisella tularensis (McCoy & Chapin)) and game bird recruitment were studied by index methods in northern Sweden. In addition contemporary temperature records and spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and pine (Pinus silvestris L.) cone crops (as indices for plant production) and the occurrence of forest damage, caused by voles eating bark, were studied. During 1970–80 two synchronous 4-year cycles were observed for voles, predators (Tengmalm's owl and red fox) and their alternative prey species (grouse and mountain hare). In grouse the change of numbers was correlated with that of recruitment. Autumn vole numbers peaked about a year before the other species and extensive forest damage occurred at winter peak densities of voles. These population fluctuations are consistent with a predator-prey model for their regulation. In short the model suggests that vole-food plant interactions trigger the cycle of voles, that voles generate the cycle of predators and that these in turn synchronize alternative prey populations to the others at vole declines. For voles, grouse and red fox the amplitude was higher in the first cycle compared to the second one whilst the opposite was true for the mountain hare. Although temperature and cone crops showed large interannual variations they still implied that herbivore food conditions were ‘better’ during the former cycle. Hence, the reduction of the amplitude of the vole cycle may be explained by inter-cyclic differences in plant food conditions, implying food shortage (as indicated by bark-eating) at different population levels. The similar decrease of grouse and red fox populations may also be explained by deteriorated food conditions and/or for the fox by an outbreak of sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiae var. vulpes). The increased amplitude of the mountain hare cycle was part of a long-term rise in numbers after a tularemia epidemic in 1967. This is interpreted as a recovery, probably towards the generally higher pre-epidemic population level. more...

Birds, like mammals, are “homeotherms,” which means that they maintain a relatively constant deep-body temperature. Birds are also “endotherms,” a term indicating that they are able to increase their body temperature by generating a considerable amount of heat within their tissues instead of relying on heat gained directly from their surroundings (Whittow, 1966). more...

The maintenance of thermal balance and high body temperature (Tb) during cold exposure of birds requires the improvement of thermal insulation and the increase of heat production (HP). Strategies for responding to low ambient temperature (Ta) are dependent on the body size. Large birds like the black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix, body mass about 1 kg) and the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus, body mass 2–5 kg) compensate for increased cold load mainly by improvement of thermal insulation (Rintamaki et al., 1983; Hissa et al., 1983). The small body size of finches minimizes the significance of thermal insulation. The maintenance of high Tb in the ccld is thus mainly dependent on the efficiency of HP. more...

IN Yarrell's “British Birds,” 4th ed. vol. iii. p. 69 seg., a number of hybrids between the cock pheasant and the gray hen are enumerated as having occurred in England. Being desirous to give a life-sized and coloured figure of such r a hybrid in my forthcoming work on the black grouse, the capercailzie, and their allies, I wish to borrow a specimen for a short time, and, as my endeavours to procure one have so far been unsuccessful, I beg to make this known through your widely read journal, hoping that some fortunate possessor may be kind enough to communicate with me concerning his willingness to lend me a specimen for the said purpose. more...

As many other wild living species, black grouse Tetrao tetrix has to cope with anthropogenic disturbances in many habitats. Impacts of tourism and outdoor recreation on grouse species Tetraoninae have been subject to several studies in mountainous habitats in Central Europe and the United Kingdom. The geographically isolated and critically endangered black grouse population of Lower Saxony (North Germany) has been consistently monitored but beyond that poorly studied. This also applies to the key habitats of the nature reserve Luneburg Heath (Luneburger Heide) which, in turn, serves as a recreational area as well. In this study, the impact of tourism activity on habitat use of black grouse was investigated using data of GPS-tracked individuals. Additionally, visitor numbers on public and (usually undisturbed) closed routes were monitored using infrared light barriers. The spatio-temporal distribution of locations and the recreational activity were evaluated by linear mixed-effects models. Tagged individuals avoided the vicinity of public routes and avoiding distances were directly related to intensity of human activity. There was no seasonal change of black grouse habitat use alongside public routes. However, towards closed routes, significantly higher distances appeared during peak phases of visitor numbers (August and September), implying temporary increased disturbance levels within a key refuge area. Diurnal adaptation of habitat use was strongly dependent on the route density within the home range. Individuals used the vicinity of public trails at night and dawn but evaded these habitats during peak human activity around noon and afternoon. Recreational disturbances appeared to significantly affect the effective habitat availability for black grouse in the nature reserve. Visual cover by vegetation, however, seemed to diminish negative effects emerging from hiking trails. This provides an effective protective measure which requires minimal effort for the local conservation management. more...

We studied supra-orbital combs in lekking black grouse (Telrao tetrix) in relation to sexual selection at five leks in Finland 1991-1998 and four leks in Sweden 1992-1995. Comb size was estimated in two ways: by observing its natural size in the field at more...

Studying demographic history of species provides insight into how the past has shaped the current levels of overall biodiversity and genetic composition of species, but also how these species may react to future perturbations. Here we investigated the demographic history of the willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus), rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta), and black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) through the Late Pleistocene using two complementary methods and whole genome data. Species distribution modeling (SDM) allowed us to estimate the total range size during the Last Interglacial (LIG) and Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) as well as to indicate potential population subdivisions. Pairwise Sequentially Markovian Coalescent (PSMC) allowed us to assess fluctuations in effective population size across the same period. Additionally, we used SDM to forecast the effect of future climate change on the three species over the next 50 years. We found that SDM predicts the largest range size for the cold-adapted willow grouse and rock ptarmigan during the LGM. PSMC captured intraspecific population dynamics within the last glacial period, such that the willow grouse and rock ptarmigan showed multiple bottlenecks signifying recolonization events following the termination of the LGM. We also see signals of population subdivision during the last glacial period in the black grouse, but more data are needed to strengthen this hypothesis. All three species are likely to experience range contractions under future warming, with the strongest effect on willow grouse and rock ptarmigan due to their limited potential for northward expansion. Overall, by combining these two modeling approaches, we have provided a multifaceted examination of the biogeography of these species and how they have responded to climate change in the past. These results help us understand how cold-adapted species may respond to future climate changes. more...

Sublethal parasite infections may cause mortality indirectly by exposing the host to predation. Intestinal helminth parasites are common in forest grouse, the capercaillie Tetrao urogallus, the black grouse Tetrao tetrix and the hazel grouse Bonasa bonasia, and these grouse are valuable prey for several species of predators. We evaluated the hypothesis that parasite infection makes the host more vulnerable to predation by comparing the intestinal parasite infection status of grouse hunted with a trained dog to that of grouse hunted without a dog. Cestode infections were more common in grouse hunted with a dog supporting the hypothesis. Cestodes were mostly parasites of juvenile grouse but even among juveniles only, cestodes were more prevalent in dogassisted hunting bag. The results suggest that mammalian predators could prey more selectively on parasitized individuals and that intestinal parasites may contribute to the high mortality of juvenile grouse through increased predation. more...

MR. THORBURN is without a peer, one may almost say without a rival, in the delineation of birds. He succeeds in combining fidelity of detail with breadth of handling which must satisfy at once the most scrupulous ornithologist and the most fastidious art critic. His latest work lies before me to prove that his hand and his eye act together as cunningly as ever; but he indicates in his preface that, being weary of producing “scientific plates of species,” in the present volume he has aimed at representing birds in their natural surroundings. The result is not uniformly satisfying. While in some of this sumptuous series of plates the landscape is subdued in tone and provides a quiet setting or background for the birds (as in Plate 14, representing brent and pink-footed geese on a tidal ooze), in some other plates it tends to overpower them. The artist secured happier effect in the charming vignettes with which he illustrated the late Lord Lilford's “British Birds” the natural environment of the species being delicately, but effectively, rendered by little more than a suggestion of landscape. Further, the effect of a snowy background in Nature must be to obliterate both colour and detail, the birds relieved against it appearing in dark silhouette; whereas the black grouse in Plate 2 and the pheasants in Plate 7 are painted in hues as vivid as they would appear if the birds had sat for their portraits in Mr. Thorburn's studio. Game Birds and Wild-Fowl of Great Britain and Ireland. Written and illustrated by A. Thorburn. Pp. vii + 79 + 30 plates. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1923.) 105s. net. more...

During 1979-85, 196 capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) and 90 black grouse (T. tetrix) nests were studied at Varaldskogen in southeast Norway. Both species nested in all available habitat types and in a wide range of forest tree-stocking density and nesting cover. Both species preferred to nest in the habitat types to which they are generally adapted, capercaillie in mature, mixed coniferous forest and black grouse in forested bogs. Black grouse used denser nest cover than capercaillie. Individually marked capercaillie females changed successive nesting habitats 12 of 19 (63%) possible times. Nest loss was unrelated to habitat type, forest density, or nest cover. Capercaillie suffered higher nest loss than black grouse in all comparable habitats. Depredated eggs of both species composed about 10% of the food demands of predators. Because nests survived equally well in all habitats and no single predator depended on grouse eggs for food, there may be no selection for rigid nest-site characteristics. High nest predation in recent years cannot be ascribed to direct effects of modern forestry on nesting habitats. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 51(1):167-172 Capercaillie and black grouse are lekking species. The cryptically colored females nest solitarily on the ground at varying distances from the lek (Bernard 1982, Wegge et al. 1982a, Kolstad et al. 1985), and the 2 species differ in general habitat selection. Most of the year, black grouse use younger forest successional stages and open moorland habitats, whereas capercaillie select mature climax forests (Seiskari 1962, Borset and Krafft 1973, Wegge et al. 1982b, Angelstam 1983). Boreal forests in Norway are exploited for commercial logging, which since the 1950's has been characterized by clearcuts of 6-20 ha, subsequently replanted to monocultures of Norway spruce (Picea abies) or Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris). Nest losses, particularly in capercaillie, seem to have increased in recent years, estimated at 64-83% in the area of this investigation (Storaas and Wegge 1985). The nesting habitats of black grouse have been studied by Bernard (1982) in the French Alps. However, except for some superficial notes (H6glund 1953, Siivonen 1953, Semenow-TjanSanskij 1960) and observations in Scottish plantations (Jones 1985), no systematic study has been published on the nesting habitats of capercaillie. The aim of this paper is to compare the nest sites of sympatric populations of caperca llie and black grouse, to relate the fate of nests to habitat types, habitat density, and nest cover, and to discuss the factors affecting nest site selection. The study was financed by the Norwegian Dir. Nat. Conserv. and the T. Gotaas Fund. O. Bakken, I. Gjerde, A. Haugland, L. Kastdalen, B. B. Larsen, M. Ribsskog, and J. Rolstad assisted in the field. F. C. Zwickel and B. W. O'Gara gave valuable comments on the manu more...

Studies of Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus and Black Grouse T. tetrix in Northern Europe have found that juvenile males of these sexually size dimorphic species suffer higher mortality than juvenile females during adverse conditions. This difference may be due to the more rapid growth rates among males. Differences in the juvenile survival of the dimorphic Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus and the monomorphic Gray Partridge Perdix perdix were studied in western North America. Juvenile male Sage Grouse survive less well than juvenile females during years unfavorable for juvenile survival and in poorer habitats. Juvenile male Gray Partridge showed little or no such trend. These results are consistent with those obtained in the European studies. Pressures of sexual selection may have led to a growth rate in juvenile males of highly dimorphic grouse species which is near the upper limit of that which can be sustained by their ecological niche. more...

During 1980-84 I studied the fates of 821 artificial nests, 96 naturally occurring capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) nests, and 12 black grouse (T. tetrix) nests at Varaldskogen, Norway. In 4 of the 5 years artificial nests with poor cover had higher loss rates than natural capercaillie nests. In 1981 natural capercaillie nests had a higher loss rate than artificial nests with poor cover. In 1981 the loss rate of natural capercaillie and black grouse nests increased as the season progressed, while the loss rate of artificial nests was constantly low. Capercaillie nests were probably detected by scent by predators most years, while predators oriented mainly by sight probably robbed most artificial nests. Loss of artificial nests was not an index to the loss of capercaillie nests. In artificial nests the losses depended on nest cover; however, natural capercaillie nests in poor cover had higher losses than nests in good cover only during 1 year. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(1):123-126 Many bird species suffer high nest losses. Because artificial nests are easy to make they have been used to study the causes of nest losses and predator hunting strategies (Goransson et al. 1975, Boag et al. 1984, Angelstam 1986). In some studies (Henry 1969, Dzieciolowski and Matuszewski 1982, Miiller 1985) results from experiments with artificial nests have been extrapolated to natural nests. This has been done even though the relation between losses in natural versus artificial nests has not been properly evaluated. I compared nest losses of artificial nests with losses of naturally occurring capercaillie and black grouse nests (unprepared depressions in the ground) to determine if predation on artificial nests could be used as an index to predation on natural nests. The experiment was designed to separate predators that used scent from those that mainly relied on sight to locate the prey. This study was financed by the Norwegian Directorate of Nature Conservation and T. Gotaas Fund. The study was conducted in close collaboration with P. Wegge. His help and advice were essential. B. B. Larsen, L. Kastdalen and the rest of the staff at Varaldskogen Field Station assisted in the field. K. E. Erikstad, N. C. Stenseth and P. Angelstam gave valuable comments about the manuscript. S. BondrupNielsen and R. W. Dimmick have kindly improved the language. STUDY AREA This study was conducted at Varaldskogen (60010'N, 12030'E) in Hedmark County, Norway, situated in the Middle Boreal Zone (Abrahamsen et al. 1977). Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus silvestris) were the dominating tree species, and blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) and heather (Calluna vulgaris) dominated the ground layer. Potential egg-predators were red fox (Vulpes vulpes), pine marten (Martes martes), badger (Meles meles), stoat (Mustela erminea), weasel (Mustela nivalis), hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), common raven (C. corax), and jay (Garrulus glandarius). more...

age and sex of dusky blue grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:662-666. CASWELL, E. B. 1954. A method for sexing blue grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 18:139. HELMINEN, M. 1963. Composition of the Finnish populations of capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus, and black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix, in the autumns of 1952-1961, as revealed by a study of wings. Finn. Pap. Game Res. 23. 124pp. HICKEY, J. J. 1955. Some American population research on gallinaceous birds. Pages 326-396 in A. Wolfson, ed. Recent studies in avaian biology. Univ. Illinois Press, Urbana. 479pp. HOFFMAN, R. W. 1981. Volunteer collection station use for obtaining grouse wing samples. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 9:180-184. LEOPOLD, A. 1933. Game management. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, N.Y. 481pp. MUSSEHL, T. W., AND T. H. LEIK. 1963. Sexing wings of adult blue grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 27:102-106. REDFIELD, J. A., AND F. C. ZWICKEL. 1976. Determining the age of young blue grouse: a correction for bias. J. Wildl. Manage. 40:349-351. VAN ROSSEM, A. J. 1925. Flight feathers as age ind cators in Dendragapus. Ibis 1:417-422. ZWICKEL, F. C. 1982. Demographic composition of hunter-harvested blue grouse in east-central Vancouver Island, British Columbia. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:1057-1061. more...

Finnish game questionnaire data from 1964-83 have been used to study cyclicity and the synchronism between species in population fluctuations of voles and 10 small game species. All the species are cyclic in at least some provinces. The most clearly cyclic species are black grouse and hazel grouse, with 6-7 yr cycles. Stoat, weasel and voles are representatives of the 3-4 yr type. The observed cycle lengths are concentrated in years four and seven. The degree of cyclicity is much higher in northern Finland than in southern provinces. The fluctuations of predators and their prey are not simultaneous. However, there is synchronism between ecologically similar species or synchronism (with time lag) between a predator and its prey. The relatively weak synchronism of voles to other species, the disharmony in the distribution of cycle lengths and the contradictory predator-prey relationships suggest that the alternative prey hypothesis cannot explain the origin of, for instance, tetraonid cycles. more...

Sexual and seasonal differences in mortality in the Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix L. were studied by radio-tracking 53 hens for 3051 bird-days in spring and summer, and 54 cocks for 3906 birds-days during spring to winter in Swedish boreal forest. The mortality rate of hens during spring and summer was 0.35 but had a sharp peak during egg laying and incubation. Goshawk Accipiter gentilis L. predation was the major known cause of death (12 of 17 kills). Outside the breeding season mortality seemed to be low. more...

forest in Akershus Country in the central part of southeastern Norway. The study revealed that the black grouse showed a greater preference for the earlier stages in the forest succession than did the capercaillie. In this area, the black grouse breeding habitat was characterized by a well-developed bush stratum. A high percentage of the capercaillie broods, however, was found in mature forest with a sparsely developed bush stratum. The black grouse broods seemed to prefer a plant community of the Dryopteris subassociation, while capercaillie broods had a more even distribution over the plant associations and subassociations in the area. more...

The primary objective of the study described in this paper was to obtain specific information on the home range and relative mobility of black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix (L.)) at different times of year. In the course of the study, new information was also discovered about the social structure of the black grouse population. The lekking habits of black grouse have enticed many biologists to study this species in detail, but the investigators have concentrated mainly on blackcock displays, including Lack (1939), Hamerstrom & Hamerstrom (1960), Hjorth (1966, 1968) and Kruijt & Hogan (1967). Johnstone (1967) evaluated the effects of black grouse feeding habits on forestry in Britain, while Seiskari (1962) described their habitat and food preference in Finland. Although Koskimies (1957) presented gross data on flocking behaviour of black grouse during autumn and winter in Finland, no detailed studies of black grouse movements and mobility have been reported. more...

By the courtesy of the owners and factors, I have been able to get grouse bags for varying periods from many game books. These are treasured personal possessions and my very sincere thanks are due to my correspondents, without whose co-operation little could have been done. The British red grouse (Lagopus scoticus (Lath)) called 'grouse' in this paper, is reputed to have a cycle of 7 years, and game-book records of bags distributed over the whole range have been collected to see to what extent such fluctuations occur and their time and space relations inter se. At the same time data were collected for the other three British tetraonids, the capercailzie (Tetrao urogallus L.), the black grouse or blackgame (Lyrurus tetrix L.) and the ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus (Montin)). It proved more difficult to get satisfactory figures for these species than for grouse, and the numbers everywhere were much smaller. The main figures came from central Scotland, Perth and Angus, with blackgame from eight big shoots in south Scotland for comparison. The game-book data cover a long period, some back to the 1830's and many to the fifties. The figures are those of birds shot and not of populations. A low number or zero does not mean that the population is nil as low stocks are conserved, but on a 10,000-acre moor the stock was said to be four birds the year after the bag had been 3402 (Committee of Inquiry on Grouse Disease 1912, p. 443). When stocks are very big it is unlikely that the whole shootable surplus is killed as the birds get wild and more...

A method for attaching a radio transmitter and power cell to game birds is described. Flexible plastic tubes form a harness which holds the power cell in the crop region and the transmitter between the scapulae. This design has been used for several years in telemetry studies on ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus). Ruffed grouse marked with radio transmitters have been successfully tracked at the Cloquet Forest Research Center in Minnesota since 1962. In succeeding years the technique of attaching the package (transmitter-battery-harness) has been steadily improved, and in this report I describe a device considerably modified from the prototype developed by Marshall and Kupa (1963). It is difficult to test the effect of a transmitter package on the behavior of a freeranging animal. At Cloquet we feel that if a transmitter-equipped female grouse breeds, brings off a normal-sized clutch, cares for her brood, and successfully faces the rigors of winter, or if a similarly equipped male engages in drumming and overwinters, this is proof that the package has not significantly influenced a bird's behavior. Normal behavior in this sense has been repeatedly observed in grouse marked with 20-gram packages. In one notable case, a hen radio-marked on March 22, 1963, was recaptured on December 12, 265 days later. She was in excellent condition and the assemblage (including the long-dead battery) was riding very well. Correspondence with field biologists has shown that this harness arrangement, or 1 Paper No. 6505, Scientific Journal Series, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Paul. A contribution from project supported by NSF Grant No. GB-1345. 2 Present address: Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. 630 slight modifications of it, have been sucessfully used on other game birds. This includes work done by H. Swope on sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in Colorado, by P. Schladweiler on sage grouse a d blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) in Montana, by L. McEwen on sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus) and pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) in Colorado, by L. Bernhoft on sharp-tailed grouse in North Dakota, by R. Robel on prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) in Kansas and black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) in Scotland, and by A. Carter on pheasant in South Dakota. There is no reason to suspect that the design could not be used for other upland game birds, provided suitable light transmitters and batteries are available. As the harness is designed for a whip antenna, it is not strictly applicable where a loop transmitting-antenna is required. The transmitters were manufactured by Sidney Markusen, Electronic Specialties, Cloquet, Minnesota. His assistance and that of William H. Marshall, Gordon W. Gullion, and Bruce A. Brown is gratefully acknowledged. CONSTRUCTION OF HARNESS Two flexible plastic tubes, %2-inch in diameter, are anchored by the manufacturer in the epoxy-resin encapsulated transmitter. These tubes are the primary harness material and also carry the negative and positive power leads. To facilitate knot-tying, the tubes should be long enough to leave a This content downloaded from 207.46.13.101 on Sun, 09 Oct 2016 04:42:02 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms A RADIO-PACKAGE HARNESS FOR GAME BIRDS * Brander Fig. 1. Whip antenna (Ant), attachment lop (AL), transmittep r (Tr), plastic tubes carrying positive and negative power leads (H+ and H-). b, Step 1. c, Step 2. d, Steps 3-4. significant surplus after the animal is harnessed. For ruffed grouse the tubes as supplied are each 18 inches long; about 6 inches are removed from each tube after the final knot is tied. Step 1 (Fig. lb): The plus tube is crossed over the minus tube and the junction is secured with 4 or 5 turns of vinyl electrical plastic tape. The distance from this junction to the rear end of the transmitter should be equal to the distance from the bird's neck to the trailing edge of its wing (about 21/2 inches in the ruffed grouse). Step 2 (Fig. Ic): The tubes are crossed again to form a loop which is just large enough to slip. over the bird's head (1l/2inch diameter for the ruffed grouse). This junction is also secured with 4 or 5 turns of tape. Step 3 (Fig. ld): The power cell is positioned between the + and tubes so that its anterior end is about 34-inch from the ventral edge of the neck loop. A mark is made on the appropriate tube (+or -) opposite its terminal counterpart on the positioned cell. Step 4 (Fig. Id): From each mark a slit about 1/4-inch long is carefully cut with a razor blade along the long axes of the tubes. A pointed device (a dissecting probe works quite well) is then used to extract about 1-inch of power lead from each slit. The leads are cut and the surplus is removed from the tubes. Each extracted lead, except a segment of about %-inch, is stripped of its insulation and soldered or clipped to the proper battery terminal (connection methods are discussed in more detail by Kuechle 1967). At the negative end of the battery it is important that only the insulated portion of the minus lead contacts the battery case. Upon completion of this step, the transmitter should be checked for signals. Step 5: The power cell and the adjacent tubes are wrapped in tape. As a final step before the harness is placed on the bird, all tape ends are coated with Duco cement to prevent unraveling. 631 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.101 on Sun, 09 Oct 2016 04:42:02 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 632 Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 32, No. 3, July 1968 Fig. 2. Radio-package placed on a ruffed grouse, showing detail of knot and attachment loop. Step 6 (Fig. 2): Two men place the package on a bird. While one man holds and positions the bird the other slips the neck loop over its head. The loop and battery are then carefully buried in feathers (down to the aftershafts in the ruffed grouse). The two harness ends are then brought back under the wings, with careful fitting under the feathers, and one end is passed through the attachment loop of the transmitter. Both leads are snugged quite securely so that it is difficult to pass a finger between the harness and the bird's side. The harness ends are secured with a square knot positioned to one side of the loop. The loose ends are taped as illustrated and the surplus harness is removed. A paper card slipped under the harness will prevent fouling with the back feathers during the final taping. It may be necessary to change the battery of a recaptured marked bird. With some practice this may be done without removing the harness. A paper card is slipped between feathers and battery, the tape is removed, and the terminal joints are unsoldered. Then a new cell is soldered and taped into place. It is of course advisable to minimize the time spent in harnessing a bird. This method is rapid and for a ruffed grouse seldom requires more than 5 minutes. more...

Background Gene duplications are frequently observed in the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) of many species, and as a consequence loci belonging to the same MHC class are often too similar to tell apart. In birds, single locus genotyping of MHC genes has proven difficult due to concerted evolution homogenizing sequences at different loci. But studies on evolutionary history, mode of selection and heterozygosity correlations on the MHC cannot be performed before it is possible to analyse duplicated genes separately. In this study we investigate the architecture and evolution of the MHC class IIB genes in black grouse. We developed a sequence-based genotyping method for separate amplification of the two black grouse MHC class IIB genes BLB1 and BLB2. Based on this approach we are able to study differences in structure and selection between the two genes in black grouse and relate these results to the chicken MHC structure and organization. Results Sequences were obtained from 12 individuals and separated into alleles using the software PHASE. We compared nucleotide diversity measures and employed selection tests for BLB1 and BLB2 to explore their modes of selection. Both BLB1 and BLB2 are transcribed and display classic characteristics of balancing selection as predicted for expressed MHC class IIB genes. We found evidence for both intra- and interlocus recombination or gene conversion, as well as indication for positive but differential selection at both loci. Moreover, the two loci appear to be linked. Phylogenetic analyses revealed orthology of the black grouse MHC class IIB genes to the respective BLB loci in chicken. Conclusions The results indicate that the duplication of the BLB gene occurred before the species divergence into black grouse, chicken and pheasant. Further, we conclude that BLB1 and BLB2 in black grouse are subjected to homogenizing concerted evolution due to interlocus genetic exchange after species divergence. The loci are in linkage disequilibrium, which is in line with the theory of tightly coevolving genes within the MHC under the minimal essential MHC hypothesis. Our results support the conclusion that MHC form and function in birds derived from studies on the domesticated chicken are not artefacts of the domestication process. more...