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Diabetes is the most frequent comorbidity among patients with COVID-19. COVID-19 patients with diabetes have a more severe prognosis than patients without diabetes. However, the etiopathogenetic mechanisms underlying this more unfavorable outcome in these patients are not clear. Probably the etiopathogenetic mechanisms underlying diabetes could represent a favorable substrate for a greater development of the inflammatory process already dysregulated in COVID-19 with a more severe evolution of the disease. In the attempt to shed light on the possible etiopathogenetic mechanisms, we wanted to evaluate the possible role of mTOR (mammalian Target Of Rapamycin) pathway in this context. We searched the PubMed and Scopus databases to identify articles involving diabetes and the mTOR pathway in COVID-19. The mTOR pathway could be involved in this etiopathogenetic mechanism, in particular, the activation and stimulation of this pathway could favor an inflammatory process that is already dysregulated in itself, while its inhibition could be a way to regulate this dysregulated inflammatory process. However, much remains to be clarified about the mechanisms of the mTOR pathway and its role in COVID-19. The aim of this review is to to understand the etiopathogenesis underlying COVID-19 in diabetic patients and the role of mTOR pathway in order to be able to search for new weapons to deal with this disease., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Introduction : Disease modifying treatments are commonly used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. As different opportunistic infections have been reported, concerns are also raised regarding the risk of invasive fungal infections. Areas covered : Both clinical trials and observational studies on safety and efficacy of diseases modifying treatment for multiple sclerosis were reviewed and data regarding the occurrence of invasive fungal infections were reported. Papers evaluating the following drugs were reviewed: rituximab, ocrelizumab, alemtuzumab, fingolimod, natalizumab, dimethyl fumarate, interferon, glatiramer acetate, cladribine, teriflunomide. Expert opinion : Overall, the occurrence of invasive fungal infections was low, with most infective events reported among patients treated with monoclonal antibodies and fingolimod. Aspergillosis and cryptococcal meningitidis were the most representative fungal infections. Although not common, these infections may be difficult to diagnose and their fatality rate is often high. For this reason, screening protocols for fungal infections must be implemented in the clinical practice when managing patients with MS.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection affects about 160 million people worldwide. It is treated with pegylatedinterferon (peg-IFN) and ribavirin, and in the case of patients affected by genotype 1, also with a protease inhibitor (telaprevir or boceprevir). Despite a good success rate, IFN-based combinations are contraindicated in several patients (e.g. decompensated cirrhosis, patients with psychiatric disorders, severe heart diseases or autoimmune disorders) and are associated with frequent adverse events that ultimately reduce their use. Numerous oral drugs are in an advanced phase of clinical development, and in some cases, in IFN-free combinations. This review focuses on preclinical and clinical data regarding daclatasvir (BMS-790052), which is a highly selective HCV NS5A replication complex inhibitor effective against HCV genotypes 1, 2, 3 and 4. In vitro data show that daclatasvir exerts a very potent antiviral effect against several HCV genotypes. Its pharmacokinetics is optimal and allows once-a-day oral administration. Its adverse event profile is good. Clinical data regarding its efficacy in combination with peg-IFN, ribavirin or other direct antiviral agents are impressive (rates of sustained virological response range between 60% and 100% in treatment-naïve patients). The only drawback of this drug appears to be a relatively low genetic barrier to resistance. In conclusion, daclatasvir, especially in combinations with other antiviral agents, is a very promising drug for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is one of the main causes of liver disease worldwide. Its treatment is currently based on the combination of peg-interferon, ribavirin, and, for patients with genotype 1, a protease inhibitor (telaprevir or boceprevir). However, interferon-based combinations are not effective in all patients. Moreover, they are contraindicated in patients who cannot receive interferon (e.g. those with decompensated cirrhosis), and are frequently associated with adverse events. Consequently, there is a need to develop new drugs to treat HCV infection. This review focuses on preclinical and clinical data regarding sofosbuvir (GS-7977), a uridine nucleotide analogue inhibitor of HCV NS5 B polymerase that is effective against HCV genotypes 1,2, 3,4 and 6. Thanks to its excellent pharmacokinetic profile, sofosbuvir can be administered in an oral single daily dose. In vitro it exerts a potent antiviral effect against HCV. Clinical data show that combined with peg-interferon and ribavirin for 12 weeks it yields SVR of about 90% in subjects with HCV genotype 1 and about 100% in patients with HCV genotype 2 or 3. Moreover, sofosbuvir and ribavirin administered for 12 weeks yield similar high SVR rate (84% for genotype 1 and 100% for genotype 2/3 patients) as well as sofosbuvir and daclatasvir (an inhibitor of NS5A) which produce SVR rate of about 100% regardless of genotype or of ribavirin employment. Safety and tolerability of sofosbuvir appear to be excellent. In conclusion, sofosbuvir especially in interferon-free combinations represents a very promising option in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C.