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A critical goal for science education is to design and implement learning activities that develop a deep conceptual understanding, are engaging for students, and are scalable for large classes or those with few resources. Approaches based on peer learning and online technologies show promise for scalability but often lack a grounding in cognitive learning principles relating to conceptual understanding. Here, we present a novel design for combining these elements in a principled way. The design centers on having students author multiple-choice questions for their peers using the online platform PeerWise, where beneficial forms of cognitive engagement are encouraged via a series of supporting activities. We evaluated an implementation of this design within a cohort of 632 students in an undergraduate biochemistry course. Our results show a robust relationship between the quality of question authoring and relevant learning outcomes, even after controlling for the confounding influence of prior grades. We conclude by discussing practical and theoretical implications.

Understanding large number data is essential for making sense of real-world problems. For the research reported here, our intent was to find connections between quantitative cognitive science studies and our prior qualitative study about participants' understanding of the relative size of large numbers. While all 23 cognitive science research studies that we reviewed focused only on participants' placements of large numbers on number lines, our study focused on preservice teachers' (PSTs; n = 128) strategies -- placements "and explanations" for their placements -- of one billion on a number line bounded by zero and one trillion. Our intent was to answer the following question: What are the connections between three plausible placements substantiated by cognitive scientists -- linear; log-linear; and segmented linear -- of large numbers on number line tasks and the nine strategies identified in our qualitative study? We highlight exemplars from the nine PSTs' strategies to show connections between the three plausible placements. In doing so, we illustrate that asking participants to place large numbers on number lines only gives a partial picture of their understanding. Their explanations expand the placements by revealing inconsistencies among the placements and explanations. Implications for future research are also discussed.

This paper discusses adapting Churches' approach to large-scale teacher/researcher conceptual replications of major "science of learning" findings, to increase teachers' engagement with empirical research on, and building research networks for, gathering data on the science of learning. The project here demonstrated the feasibility of teacher-led randomised controlled trials for conceptually replicating the effects of cognitive science on learning, as specified by researchers. It also indicated high levels of interest by teachers in applying more science of learning in their practice. The approach gave freedom to teachers to design interventions, choose research methods, and measure outcomes, even though such freedom would be in tension with some scientific research which relies on constraining the sources of variation. This paper discusses how a balance can be struck between the objectives of teachers and researchers engaged in replicating cognitive science findings, and promoting teacher engagement in conceptual replication research.

The purpose of this article is to offer insights into current understanding of digital learning environments (DLEs) from a neuroscientific perspective. Cognitive neuroscience methods are increasingly applied in educational research to examine the neural underpinnings of learning. As such, neuroscientific evidence can play an important role in advancing current knowledge base from the existing self-reported data and behavioural measures in the field of educational technology. In this paper, we focus our review of neuroscience research on DLEs that can potentially transform the way we view learning and instruction. We discuss recent empirical studies done on DLEs using common cognitive neuroscience methods which included eye tracking, electroencephalography (EEG), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We offer recommendations for future applications of neuroscience methods in behavioural research within DLEs.

In this regular "American Educator" column, findings from the field of cognitive science that are strong and clear enough to merit classroom application are considered. Research over the last 10 years measuring whether participants learn better when new content fits their purported learning style shows little to no support for style distinctions. However, there is emerging evidence that people have a propensity to engage in one style of processing over others and that the type of mental processing people use often has a substantial effect on task success. According to the research, people can control the type of processing they use, and there is no evidence that overruling their processing bias incurs a cost to thinking. This research suggests that educators need not worry about their students' learning styles and that students should be taught fruitful thinking strategies for specific types of problems. Students can be taught useful strategies for committing things to memory, reading with comprehension, overcoming math anxiety, or avoiding distraction, for example, and their learning styles will not influence these strategies.

Background: Research into numerical cognition has contributed to a large body of knowledge on how children learn and perform mathematics. This knowledge has the potential to inform mathematics education. Unfortunately, numerical cognition research and mathematics education remain disconnected from one another, lacking the proper infrastructure to allow for productive and meaningful exchange between disciplines. The present study was designed to address this gap. Aim: This study reports on the design, implementation, and effects of a 16-week (25-hour) mathematics Professional Development (PD) model for Kindergarten to Grade 3 educators and their students. A central goal of the PD was to better integrate numerical cognition research and mathematics education. Sample: A total of 45 K-3 educators and 180 of their students participated. Methods: To test the reproducibility and replicability of the model, the study was carried out across two different sites, over a two-year period, and involved a combination of two different study designs: a quasi-experimental pre-post-research design and a within-group crossover intervention design. Result: The results of the first implementation (Year 1), indicated that compared to a control group, both teachers and students benefited from the intervention. Teachers demonstrated gains on both a self-report measure and a test of numerical cognition knowledge, while students demonstrated gains in number line estimation, arithmetic, and numeration. In Year 2, teachers in the intervention group demonstrated greater improvements than the control group on the self-report measure, but not the test of numerical cognition knowledge. At the student level, there was some evidence of gains in numeration. Conclusion: The current PD model is a promising approach to better integrate research and practice. However, more research is needed to determine in which school contexts the model is most effective.

Engaging students in authentic problem solving concerning environmental issues in near-surface complex Earth systems involves both developing student conceptualization of Earth as a system and applying that scientific knowledge using techniques that model those used by professionals. In this first paper of a two-part series, we review the state of the geoscience education research field related to systems thinking in the context of Earth systems. The purpose of this study is to build on previous syntheses by conducting a configurative literature review that addresses the following research questions: (1) What are the characteristics of studies that address systems thinking in the context of Earth systems? (2) What conceptual frameworks for systems are present in the geoscience education research literature on systems thinking in the context of Earth systems? (3) How are these conceptual frameworks operationalized in research and educational interventions aimed at understanding and supporting systems thinking in the context of Earth systems? Twenty-seven papers met inclusion and exclusion criteria. Content analysis was conducted on each of these papers, and systems ideas were analyzed using the constant comparative method. Four conceptual frameworks were identified: Earth systems perspective, Earth systems thinking skills, complexity sciences, and authentic complex Earth and environmental systems. This study is, to our knowledge, the first systematic review in this area and allows a more consistent comparison of new findings with previous work. It also facilitates strengthening connections with cognitive science and education research literature related to systems thinking and complex systems.

This manuscript addresses the potential role of geoscience education research in understanding geoscience expert practice. We note the similarity between the perception-action framework of Ulric Neisser (Neisser, 1976) and the observation-prediction framework used by geoscience practitioners. The consilience between these two approaches is that learning takes place when links are formed between predictions and observations and that this linkage is formed through conceptual models. Use of conceptual models facilitates learning at all levels; hence, there is little difference between learning in expert practice and student learning at all levels. The field of geoscience education is uniquely poised to enhance geoscience practice through investigation of expert learning, both in traditional field research and when experts adopt new tools and techniques. The consilience of expert practice, student learning, and cognitive science outcomes provides a rich opportunity to enhance both the intellectual merit of research and the direct and indirect broader impacts.

The case study focuses on the interactional mechanisms through which online collaborative teams co-construct a shared understanding of an analytical geometry problem by using dynamic geometry representations. The collaborative study consisted of an assignment on which the learners worked together in groups to solve a ship navigation problem as described in the Virtual Math Teams (VMT) environment. In this paper, a single group's problem solving activities were qualitatively analyzed to understand how they achieved a sense of joint perception of their shared workspace as a navigational chart which encodes the physical relationships between landmarks in the form of angle and distance measures. The analysis of the excerpts indicated that the initial struggles and their resolution in interaction as participants mastered the use of dynamic features in their shared workspace helped them gradually develop a shared understanding of the key spatial relationships among landmarks encoded in the 2D chart.

Education changes the brain. The purpose of this meta-review is to afford teachers access to the most up-to-date research regarding principal neuro-processes of adolescent development and behavior to improve students' well-being and motivation in the classroom. This includes facets such as emotional, social, risk and reward mechanisms, stressors, technology, and learning. Understanding the scientific basis behind processes, such as learning and memory, empowers teachers with the knowledge to quantify the effects of their teaching on the brain, to facilitate successful learning, and to contribute to the present as well as future health and well-being of their adolescent students.

Interdisciplinary understanding requires integration of insights from different perspectives, yet it appears questionable whether disciplinary experts are well prepared for this. Indeed, psychological and cognitive scientific studies suggest that expertise can be disadvantageous because experts are often more biased than non-experts, for example, or fixed on certain approaches, and less flexible in novel situations or situations outside their domain of expertise. An explanation is that experts' conscious and unconscious cognition and behavior depend upon their learning and acquisition of a set of mental representations or knowledge structures. Compared to beginners in a field, experts have assembled a much larger set of representations that are also more complex, facilitating fast and adequate perception in responding to relevant situations. This article argues how metacognition should be employed in order to mitigate such disadvantages of expertise: By metacognitively monitoring and regulating their own cognitive processes and representations, experts can prepare themselves for interdisciplinary understanding. Interdisciplinary collaboration is further facilitated by team metacognition about the team, tasks, process, goals, and representations developed in the team. Drawing attention to the need for metacognition, the article explains how philosophical reflection on the assumptions involved in different disciplinary perspectives must also be considered in a process complementary to metacognition and not completely overlapping with it. (Disciplinary assumptions are here understood as determining and constraining how the complex mental representations of experts are chunked and structured.) The article concludes with a brief reflection on how the process of Reflective Equilibrium should be added to the processes of metacognition and philosophical refection in order for experts involved in interdisciplinary collaboration to reach a justifiable and coherent form of interdisciplinary integration. An Appendix of "Prompts or Questions for Metacognition" that can elicit metacognitive knowledge, monitoring, or regulation in individuals or teams is included at the end of the article.

While very popular in public discourse about education, critical thinking education is still a work in progress. Two key conditions for successfully addressing critical thinking education are lacking: (a) the availability of a clear, specific, and operational definition, and (b) a deeper understanding of the natural cognitive bases of critical thinking. We, therefore, propose a theoretical framework for critical thinking education, grounded on a cognitive approach. Starting from a restrictive characterization of critical thinking--defined as the capacity of evaluating the epistemic quality of information, and of calibrating one's confidence in relationship to it--we identify specific mechanisms subserving critical thinking that are present in early human development. We refer to these mechanisms as the natural building blocks of critical thinking. On this naturalistic ground, effective educational strategies can be envisaged that both harness the natural building blocks of critical thinking and help overcome its shortcomings.

In this discussion paper, teaching and learning are characterized as being situated, complex, and reciprocally interactive activities. Accordingly, a teacher's pedagogical actions are always action and reaction at the same time. Irrespective of the reciprocally interactive nature of teaching and learning, educational research has sought to identify characteristics of teacher expertise that enable teachers to influence students' learning in a systematic and positive way. In this respect, the contributions to this special issue offer an innovative research paradigm, because they bring together different and originally separated strands of research: (1) research on professional vision in teacher education, (2) research on the structure and development of expertise in cognitive science, (3) research on cognitive processes by means of eye-tracking technologies in psychology, and (4) research on educational effectiveness and instructional quality in educational science. Following this introduction, a detailed discussion of the rewards and challenges of each of the seven contributions is provided. This discussion leads to the following conclusions: (a) The emphasis on the "reacting teacher" in professional vision research undervalues the role of lesson planning for the flexible handling of sudden events during class instruction. (b) The assumption of professional vision as "mediator" between a teacher's knowledge and pedagogical actions overlooks that teachers can sometimes do more than they can tell. (c) Not all of the gaze behavior that is currently studied needs to be instructed. (d) Research should move beyond explorative expert-novice comparisons to hypotheses-driven designs that investigate how teachers can learn to successfully apply evidence-based pedagogical principles.

Cognitive neuroscience has gained significant insight into the mechanisms underlying the mental lexicon and their impact on second language vocabulary learning. However, relatively little effort has been put into understanding how these mechanisms may impact instructional practices. We attempt to bridge this gap. Towards that end, we first describe three main properties of the mental lexicon: words have distinct form and meaning representations; these representations are organized in multilingual network structures organized by similarity; and the representations differ in strength. Next, we translate the properties into a visual framework that we use to reflect upon how this knowledge affects three important choices in vocabulary instruction: composing word lists, selecting an instruction method, and consolidating newly acquired words. Lastly, we discuss opportunities for both science and practice, highlighting the importance of improving the ecological validity of scientific models and theories, and of developing instructional methods grounded in cognitive science.

Chew and Cerbin (2021) outline nine cognitive challenges to student learning with which economic educators are likely familiar, even if the language used to describe them differs. In this article, the authors refrain from summarizing Chew and Cerbin's framework and instead focus on providing context for how those conducting research and developing pedagogy in economics might incorporate these challenges into their work. In addition, they provide some thoughts on what these challenges mean for two important related issues: improving diversity and inclusion in the economics profession and the training of teachers in economics. [For "The cognitive challenges of effective teaching," see EJ1282120.]

Systemic racism is a scientifically tractable phenomenon, urgent for cognitive scientists to address. This tutorial reviews the built-in systems that undermine life opportunities and outcomes by racial category, with a focus on challenges to Black Americans. From American colonial history, explicit practices and policies reinforced disadvantage across all domains of life, beginning with slavery, and continuing with vastly subordinated status. Racially segregated housing creates racial isolation, with disproportionate costs to Black Americans' opportunities, networks, education, wealth, health, and legal treatment. These institutional and societal systems build-in individual bias and racialized interactions, resulting in systemic racism. Unconscious inferences, empirically established from perceptions onward, demonstrate non-Black Americans' inbuilt associations: pairing Black Americans with negative valences, criminal stereotypes, and low status, including "animal" rather than "human." Implicit racial biases (improving only slightly over time) imbed within non-Black individuals' systems of racialized beliefs, judgments, and affect that predict racialized behavior. Interracial interactions likewise convey disrespect and distrust. These systematic individual and interpersonal patterns continue partly due to non-Black people's inexperience with Black Americans and reliance on societal caricatures. Despite systemic challenges, Black Americans are more diverse now than ever, due to resilience (many succeeding against the odds), immigration (producing varied backgrounds), and intermarriage (increasing the multiracial proportion of the population). Intergroup contact can foreground Black diversity, resisting systemic racism, but White advantages persist in all economic, political, and social domains. Cognitive science has an opportunity: to include in its study of the mind the distortions of reality about individual humans and their social groups.

Instructional principles gleaned from cognitive science play a critical role in improving classroom teaching. This study examines how three cognitive instructional principles including worked examples, representations, and deep questions are used in eight experienced elementary teachers' early algebra lessons in the U.S. Based on the analysis of 32 videotaped lessons of inverse relations, we found that most teachers spent sufficient class time on worked examples; however, some lessons included repetitive examples that also included irrelevant practice problems. Most teachers also situated new teaching in concrete contexts, which were faded into abstract representations. However, connections between concrete and abstract were not always made. The largest challenge was rooted in teachers' inability to ask deep questions that elicited students' deep explanations. Some teachers focused on key words and provided students with direct explanations. Implications are discussed.

Practice effects are ubiquitous human phenomena that have been scientifically studied for over half a century. They are also among the most directly applicable psychological phenomenon, holding broad implications for any domain involving human expertise, and especially for education. Yet the details of how practice works to improve performance are often poorly understood by the users of this phenomenon, such as teachers and coaches. In this paper I describe a simple classroom activity, The Seeker Game, which introduces students to the basics of practice effects, and to some of its complexities. After describing the game I suggest directions for discussion, focusing on "Microgenetic Analysis," a method that exposes the sources of performance change in detail. This analysis reveals the multifactorial nature of change, demonstrating that performance change often takes place not primarily in participants' heads, but spanning the cognitive, physical, and social domains.

For over 50 years, the satisfaction of search effect has been studied within the field of radiology. Defined as a decrease in detection rates for a subsequent target when an initial target is found within the image, these multiple target errors are known to underlie errors of omission (e.g., a radiologist is more likely to miss an abnormality if another abnormality is identified). More recently, they have also been found to underlie lab-based search errors in cognitive science experiments (e.g., an observer is more likely to miss a target 'T' if a different target 'T' was detected). This phenomenon was renamed the subsequent search miss (SSM) effect in cognitive science. Here we review the SSM literature in both radiology and cognitive science and discuss: (1) the current SSM theories (i.e., satisfaction, perceptual set, and resource depletion theories); (2) the eye movement errors that underlie the SSM effect; (3) the existing efforts tested to alleviate SSM errors; and (4) the evolution of methodologies and analyses used when calculating the SSM effect. Finally, we present the attentional template theory, a novel mechanistic explanation for SSM errors, which ties together our current understanding of SSM errors and the attentional template literature.

What is the most prototypical form of African literature? Shouldn't we be using African languages to produce African literary texts, shouldn't we produce more Afriphone African literature compared to Europhone African literature or Afro-Europhone literature? This issue underlies the reality that the vast majority of African writers presumably think in one language and express themselves (speak, enchant, or write) in another. This problematic, crystalized in major debates between Ngugi wa Thiongo and others, on the one hand, and Chinua Achebe and others, on the other hand, has resulted in great challenges as to how we can define or even conceptualize the discipline of African literature. Is it literature written by Africans in African languages for Africans or is it literature written by anybody including nonAfricans in non-African languages? Or is it somewhere in-between these two extremes? The paper discusses several positions on this major question in African literature before advancing a novel proposal based on insights and evidence from proto-type theory within Linguistics and the Cognitive Sciences. This proposal leads to a somewhat provocative conclusion about the gradation of African literatures, where "African language literatures" or Afrophone literatures, comprise the core, proto-typical category in a 21st Century African literature constellation, whereas foreign language and diasporic literatures such as "Afro-European literatures," "Afro-American literatures," and "Afro-Chinese literatures" are the hybrid and thus more recessive, peripheral types of African literature.

Despite an increasing focus on the quality of teaching in postsecondary institutions, little research exists that examines how faculty actually plan their courses in real-world settings. In this study the idea of the "problem space" from cognitive science is used to examine how faculty construct mental representations for the task of planning undergraduate courses. Using data from free lists and retrospective interviews, I report the factors that most shape the planning space and subsequent strategies and curricular artifacts used by a group of 58 faculty. Results indicate the primacy of fixed affordances, such as workload constraints, course content, and class size, and that these constraints contribute to the routine maintenance of preexisting lecture notes and PowerPoint slides. I recommend that educational leaders consider these cultural practices when designing instructional reforms and enact policies that require faculty to engage in brief, postclass reflection that results in minor updates to these artifacts.

This article discusses major theoretical debates and paradigms from the last decades in general education and their specific influences in mathematics education contexts. Behaviourism, cognitive science, constructivism, situated cognition, critical theory, place-based learning, postmodernism and poststructuralism and their significant aspects in mathematics education are discussed. In a discussion that limits its size to that of one article, my main goals are to outline the main tendencies and debates that operate on various educational contexts and theoretical assumptions--the way they interfere and challenge each other and their connections to mathematics education research.

In this study, the historical development of experimental research on learning processes from scientific texts has been introduced. Then a detailed analysis of the main contributions of cognitive science has been provided and the theoretical developments that are considered to have had a major role in the comprehension and understanding of scientific texts have been dwelled on. Our premise is to determine how development in understanding the basics of the comprehension of scientific text has been achieved and indicate the best way to continue research in the fields in which there has been less development. For this reason, types of theoretical developments required in order to make progress within the framework of learning processes from scientific texts have been included in this analysis. Thus, a contribution will be made in terms of better interpretation of the scientific texts used in environmental and science education. [Note: The citation at the top of the pdf is incorrect. The page numbers should be 29-34, not 905-920.]

In recent years, several theoretical discussions as to the relationship between neuroscience and education have been held. Researchers have started to have cooperation over neuroscience and the interdisciplinary researches in which education is included. It was found that there were interactions between cognitive neuroscience and educational researches. It is thought that when the research results regarding the ones carried out on an educational dimension along with neuroscience and the application of their findings into classroom environments are included, then these research results will be given more importance. It is also considered that interdisciplinary researches such as cognitive and educational neuroscience will contribute to the understanding of how one can learn better.

"Advances in Health Sciences Education" ("AHSE") has been at the forefront of the cognitive wave in health professions education for the past 25 years. One example is research on productive failure, a teaching strategy that asks learners to attempt to generate solutions to difficult problems before receiving instruction. This study compared the effectiveness of productive failure with indirect failure to further characterize the underpinning cognitive mechanisms of productive failure. Year one pharmacy students (N = 42) were randomly assigned to a productive failure or an indirect failure learning condition. The problem of estimating renal function based on serum creatinine was described to participants in the productive failure learning condition, who were then asked to generate a solution. Participants in the indirect failure condition learned about the same problem and were given incorrect solutions that other students had created, as well as the Cockcroft-Gault formula, and asked to compare and contrast the equations. Immediately thereafter all participants completed a series of tests designed to assess acquisition, application, and preparation for future learning (PFL). The tests were repeated after a 1-week delay. Participants in the productive failure condition outperformed those in the indirect failure condition, both on the immediate PFL assessment, and after a 1-week delay. These results emphasize the crucial role of generation in learning. When preparing novice students to learn new knowledge in the future, generating solutions to problems prior to instruction may be more effective than simply learning about someone else's mistakes. Struggle and failure are most productive when experienced personally by a learner because it requires the learner to engage in generation, which deepens conceptual understanding.

This study investigates, through a cluster-randomized trial, the effectiveness of two approaches to increasing middle school students' science learning using a traditional science curriculum. Ninety schools were randomly assigned into one of three arms: (a) a treatment arm in which the textbook curriculum was modified based on four principles of cognitive science coupled with teacher professional development (PD), (b) a second treatment arm in which teachers received PD designed to improve their knowledge of the science content, and (c) a business-as-usual control group. The PD was able to change teacher practice but barely improved teacher knowledge. No significant boost in student achievement was observed, except in a few instances, where there were some promising findings. Exploratory analyses were conducted to examine what makes the interventions more effective. Implications for future research were discussed.

Gestures are physical manifestations of cognitive processes. Geology students often use gestures to describe geologic features and processes. The gestures allow students to convey 3- and 4-dimensional information about the rocks. Studying and characterizing these gestures can be useful in understanding students' learning processes; however, previous attempts to categorize gestures used in geologic contexts by existing classification schemes have been unsuccessful. The most commonly used schemes developed by cognitive science researchers are too simplistic to capture the full range of gestures used by students and professional geologists. Therefore, we have developed a new classification scheme to categorize the most common gestures we see being used in a geologic context. This classification scheme describes both the "gesture type"--the shape the hands make--and the "gesture function"--the meaning or purpose of the gesture. We used a hermeneutical approach to interpret gesture meaning, drawing from concurrent speech and contextual surroundings when the gestures were made. We categorized 5 gesture types: "point," "domain," "flat-hand," "frame," and "form gestures." We categorized 11 gesture functions: tracing, highlighting, locational, directional, rotational, constraining, sizing, emphasis, sequential, illustrative, and constructive gestures. We subdivided gesture functions into first-order and second-order gesture functions, depending on their complexity. Through this classification scheme, we are able to categorize and describe the vast majority of gestures used in a geologic context. If we want to better understand how, when, and why geology students use gestures, and how those gestures communicate their conceptual understanding of geologic features and processes, we need a consistent vocabulary to describe it. This lexicon provides a necessary tool for future work in studying embodied cognition within a geologic context and for assessing students' understanding of geologic concepts.

Finding better ways to implement effective teaching and learning strategies in higher education is urgently needed to help address student outcomes such as retention rates, graduation rates, and learning. Psychologists contribute to the science and art of teaching and learning in higher education under many flags, including cognitive psychology, science of learning, educational psychology, scholarship of teaching and learning in psychology, discipline-based educational research in psychology, design-based implementation research, and learning sciences. Productive, rigorous collaboration among researchers and instructors helps. However, translational research and practice-based research alone have not closed the translation gap between the research laboratory and the college classroom. Fortunately, scientists and university faculty can draw on the insights of decades of research on the analogous science-to-practice gap in medicine and public health. Health researchers now add to their toolbox of translational and practice-based research the systematic study of the process of "implementation" in real work settings directly. In this article, we define "implementation science" for cognitive psychologists as well as educational psychologists, learning scientists, and others with an interest in use-inspired basic cognitive research, propose a novel model incorporating implementation science for translating cognitive science to classroom practice in higher education, and provide concrete recommendations for how use-inspired basic cognitive science researchers can better understand those factors that affect the uptake of their work with implementation science.

We investigated how item formats influence test takers' response tendencies under uncertainty. Adult participants solved content-equivalent math items in three formats: multiple-selection multiple-choice, grid with forced-choice (true-false) options, and grid with non-forced-choice options. Participants showed a greater tendency to commit (rather than omit) responses in the grid items, in both forced-choice and non-forced-choice types, compared to the multiple-selection multiple-choice items. These findings relate to the theoretical framework of affordances, which predicts that the design of interactive artifacts can shape one's perception of action opportunities. The results of a signal detection analysis provided additional evidence that the item formats affected participants' response bias. The current research suggests that cognitive science principles could provide an in-depth understanding of test takers' cognition in new item formats.

[This paper is part of the Focused Collection on Curriculum Development: Theory into Design.] This paper discusses the theoretical framework and curriculum materials that form the basis of the Investigative Science Learning Environment (ISLE) approach to learning and teaching physics. ISLE, as a philosophical approach to learning, has two core intentionalities: (i) We want students to learn physics by thinking like physicists; by engaging in knowledge-generating activities that mimic the actual practices of physics and using the reasoning tools that physicists use when constructing and applying knowledge. (ii) The way in which students learn physics should enhance their well being. These intentionalities form the basis upon which we build a bricolage of multiple theoretical perspectives. We will show how the ISLE approach and its implementation is shaped by (a) the epistemological commitments of physics, (b) the findings of cognitive science, (c) theories of learning communities, and (d) the perspective of universal design. We will present both qualitative and quantitative data that demonstrate the effectiveness of ISLE in helping students to achieve our intentionalities. We conclude with a call to curriculum developers and implementers to explicitly articulate their intentionalities and theoretical perspectives so that we may forge deeper connections between educational theories, curriculum development, and implementation.

[This paper is part of the Focused Collection on Curriculum Development: Theory into Design.] Research in physics education has contributed substantively to improvements in the learning and teaching of university physics by informing the development of research-based instructional materials for physics courses. Reports on the design of these materials have tended to focus on overall improvements in student performance, while the role of theory in informing the development, refinement, and assessment of the materials is often not clearly articulated. In this article, we illustrate how dual-process theories of reasoning and decision making have guided the ongoing development, testing, and analysis of an instructional intervention, implemented at three different institutions, designed to build consistency in student reasoning about the application of Newton's 2nd law to objects at rest. By employing constructs from cognitive science associated with dual-process theories of reasoning (such as mindware and cognitive reflection), we were able not only to examine the overall improvement in student performance but also to investigate the impact of the intervention on two aspects of productive reasoning--mindware and cognitive reflection. Our analysis showed that the intervention strengthened students' mindware such that students were able to apply it as a criterion while checking the validity of their intuitive responses. Moreover, logistic regression revealed that the success of our intervention was mediated by the students' cognitive reflection skills. Indeed, for students with comparable mindware, those who demonstrated a weaker tendency toward cognitive reflection were less likely to initiate conflict detection and therefore never had the opportunity to utilize their mindware. We believe that this kind of integrated, theory-driven approach to intervention design and testing represents an important first step in efforts to both account for and leverage domain-general reasoning phenomena in the learning and teaching of physics.

Arguments over conceptions of giftedness and provisions for the gifted bear similarities to arguments over key constructs in other disciplines. We can clarify and strengthen the conceptual foundations for gifted education by going beyond psychology and education to explore theory and research in other disciplines such as cultural anthropology, ethical philosophy, history, sociology, economics, and the philosophy of science. Based on long-term experiences with interdisciplinary inquiry, including collaborative, interdisciplinary projects involving leading thinkers from multiple fields, this focus article provides suggestions about ways in which scholars can shed new light on high ability. The suggestions include frameworks for individual and collaborative interdisciplinary exploration and discussion of the benefits and pitfalls of such work. The analysis provides the basis for reactions from leading thinkers in the fields of gifted education and creative studies. Respondents will react to the recommendations for further interdisciplinary work, especially in the field of gifted education, looking for strengths, flaws, and refinements.

How does the mind work--and especially how does it learn? Teachers' instructional decisions are based on a mix of theories learned in teacher education, trial and error, craft knowledge, and gut instinct. Such knowledge often serves us well, but is there anything sturdier to rely on? Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field of researchers from psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, and anthropology who seek to understand the mind. In this regular "American Educator" column, we consider findings from this field that are strong and clear enough to merit classroom application.

At a research University near the east coast, researchers restructured a College Algebra course by formatting the course into two large lectures a week, an active recitation size laboratory class once a week, and an extra day devoted to active group work called Supplemental Practice (SP). SP was added as an extra day of class where the SP leader has students work in groups on a worksheet of examples and problems, based off of worked-example research, that were covered in the previous week's class material. Two sections of the course were randomly chosen to be the experimental group and the other section was the control group. The experimental group was given the SP worksheets and the control group was given a question-and-answer session. The experimental group's performance was statistically significant compared to the control on a variety of components in the course, particularly when prior knowledge was factored into the data.

The purpose of this research investigation was to look at the factors that lead to isolation, lack of student inspiration and motivation, lack of student engagement and lack of student retention in the asynchronous online learning environment. The study further delves into how the use of cognitive and neuroscience research can inform the design of an interactive user interface model to address the aforementioned factors. The instrument used in this study was researcher designed "Tri-Squared Test Inventive Investigative Instrument" (Osler, 2012). The data was analyzed using the novel Tri-Squared Meta-Analysis methodology. The results yielded significant differences in the Tri-Squared Meta-Analysis regarding the research literature as it relates to the overall use of cognitive science, neuroscience, and the science of design to increase the overall effectiveness of distance education in terms of course design based upon neuroscientific graphic user interface concepts and principles. This illustrates that there is a clear lack of relevant research regarding the use of cognitive science, neuroscience, and the science of design to truly create effective and engaging distance education online courses.

How does the mind work--and especially how does it learn? Teacher's instructional decisions are based on a mix of theories learned in teacher education, trial and error, craft knowledge, and gut instinct. Such knowledge often serves teachers well, but is there anything sturdier to rely on? Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field of researchers from psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, and anthropology who seek to understand the mind. In this regular "American Educator" column, we consider findings from this field that are strong and clear enough to merit classroom application. This month's issue discusses math anxiety. Math anxiety is not limited to a minority of individuals nor to one country. International comparisons of high school students show that some students in every country are anxious about math. Is is perhaps not surprising that there is an inverse relationship between anxiety and efficacy: countries where students are less proficient in math (as measured by the Program for International Student Assessment) tend to have higher levels of math anxiety. Topics discussed in this month's column include: when and how math anxiety emerges; which students tend to be most susceptible to math anxiety; social influences that may impact math anxiety; and what teachers can do to remediate math anxiety.

"Vision and Change" challenged biology instructors to develop evidence-based instructional approaches that were grounded in the core concepts and competencies of biology. This call for reform provides an opportunity for new educational tools to be incorporated into biology education. In this essay, we advocate for learning progressions as one such educational tool. First, we address what learning progressions are and how they leverage research from the cognitive and learning sciences to inform instructional practices. Next, we use a published learning progression about carbon cycling to illustrate how learning progressions describe the maturation of student thinking about a key topic. Then, we discuss how learning progressions can inform undergraduate biology instruction, citing three particular learning progressions that could guide instruction about a number of key topics taught in introductory biology courses. Finally, we describe some challenges associated with learning progressions in undergraduate biology and some recommendations for how to address these challenges.

Prior studies have shown that students have difficulty understanding the role of mutation in evolution and genetics. However, little is known about unifying themes underlying students' difficulty with mutation. In this study, we examined students' written explanations about mutation from a cognitive science perspective. According to one cognitive perspective, scientific phenomena can be perceived as entities or processes, and the miscategorization of processes as entities can lead to noncanonical ideas about scientific phenomena that are difficult to change. Students' incorrect categorization of processes as entities is well documented in physics but has not been studied in biology. Unlike other scientific phenomena that have been studied, the word "mutation" refers to both the process causing a change in the DNA and the entity, the altered DNA, making mutation a relevant concept for exploration and extension of this theory. In this study, we show that, even after instruction on mutation, the majority of students provided entity-focused descriptions of mutation in response to a question that prompted for a process-focused description in a lizard or a bacterial population. Students' noncanonical ideas about mutation occurred in both entity- and process-focused descriptions. Implications for conceptual understanding and instruction are discussed.

Distributed cognition, as it considers how technologies augment cognition, informs technology integration in education. Most educational technologists interested in distributed cognition embrace a representational theory of mind. As this theory assumes cognition occurs in the brain and depends on the internal representation of external information, it is informed by a mind/body dualism that separates the individual student from material things. Alternatively, the theory of the extended mind describes the mind as a dynamic system of interactions inclusive of human agents, technologies and other material things. Refusing the mind/body dualism, if one element is removed, the quality of cognitive activity declines. Across the cognitive sciences, there are debates between these representational and extended theories that have implications for what it means to be a student and for technology integration. However, distributed cognition research in educational technology ignores these debates. Instead, this research is conditioned by the discursive practices of a neoliberal assemblage of political, commercial and pedagogical institutions. In this era of high stakes testing, as the individual student is measured, evaluated and otherwise made subject through these practices, this assemblage expresses a tacit commitment to, and is productive of, the subjectivity of the individual student and thus benefits from the representational theory of mind. In this way, regardless of the recognized legitimacy of the theory of the extended mind, sustained by neoliberalism the field of educational technology will not soon question the veracity of the representational theory of mind or the mind/body dualism upon which it depends.

Cognitive science research on learning and instruction is often not directly connected to discipline-based research. In an effort to narrow this gap, this essay integrates research from both fields on five learning and instruction strategies: active retrieval, distributed (spaced) learning, dual coding, concrete examples, and feedback and assessment. These strategies can significantly enhance the effectiveness of science instruction, but they typically do not find their way into the undergraduate classroom. The implementation of these strategies is illustrated through an undergraduate science course for nonmajors called Science in Our Lives. This course provides students with opportunities to use scientific information to solve real-world problems and view science as part of everyday life.