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Previous work showed that the banding process of docking minimally affected mature cows' behavior and physiology, but cutting off the necrotic tail increased haptoglobin. Additionally the docked cows had more flies on the rear legs and exhibited more fly avoidance behaviors. Because many producers dock young calves while they are in hutches where fly problems are more pronounced, we investigated changes in behavior and physiology of young calves following docking by banding. Twenty calves (3 to 5 wk of age) were assigned to a docked or control group, at each of two locations (Indiana and Wisconsin). After applying a band to dock the tail, calves were tested every 15 min for sensitivity to heat below the band at the Indiana location. Calf behavior was recorded for 2 h postbanding and analyzed continuously for that period. After 3 wk, tails were removed and then 1 wk later, fly counts and fly avoidance behaviors were observed at both locations. Tails were sensitive to heat below the banding site, for 60 to 120 min postbanding (mean 87 min). Banded calves were more active than control calves during the 2 h following banding. Percentage of time spent lying was greater for control calves, and the percentage of time spent walking was greater for docked than control calves. More importantly, movements of the head to touch the tail were increased for banded calves (eight-fold more movements). Fly avoidance behaviors directed toward the rear of the calf were evident at noon or in the afternoon. Ear twitches were more frequent for the docked calves and less frequent in the morning for all calves. Licking was more frequent for the docked calves at 1200 and 1600 h. Tail swings were most frequent at 1200 and more frequent for control calves. Two acute phase proteins, haptoglobin and alpha1 acid-glycoprotein, were not different at any time. In this study, calves that were banded at 3-wk-of-age showed behaviors indicative of discomfort for 2 h, were attacked by more flies, and showed increased fly avoidance behaviors when docked.

Tail docking is an animal well-being issue not only regarding the docking procedures but also because of concerns during fly season. To address the latter question, we selected eight cows that had been tail-docked in a previous experiment and eight nondocked cows matched by stage of lactation. Physiological, immunological, and behavioral measures were used to evaluate the well being of those cows housed in a tie-stall barn during fly season for 5 consecutive days. Behavior was observed for 5-min interval instantaneous scan samples for 1 h each at 0800, 1200, and 1600 h. Flies were counted before behavior observations. Blood samples were taken daily for plasma and leukocyte separation. Cows were scored on d 5 for cleanliness on a five-point scale. Docked cows were cleaner, but fly counts of docked cows were greater for total fly counts and rear leg counts. However, counts were not different on front legs. Time of day was significant, so each time of day was analyzed separately. Docked cows were observed to exhibit fewer tail swings at 0800 h, but docked cows tended to ruminate more at that time. Docked cows tended to stand less at the 1200 h observation. Total fly-avoidance behaviors were greater for all cows at the 1600-h observation. Only tail swings tended to be more frequent with docked cows, but foot stomps occurred only in the docked cows. Lymphocyte phenotypes, acute-phase proteins, and immunoglobulin concentrations did not differ. In conclusion, although docked cows were cleaner, as the fly numbers increase throughout the day, fly-avoidance behaviors also increased and foot stomping appeared as an alternative method for fly avoidance by docked cows.

A line of White Leghorn chickens was selected for high group productivity and longevity resulting in improved survival and feather score as well as reduced cannibalism and flightiness. Improvements in survival might have also been due to improved immunity. The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that selection for high (HGPS) and low (LGPS) group productivity and survivability also altered immune and hematological parameters. The LGPS line was an intense reverse selected line of the HGPS line at the eighth generation of development. Hens were randomly assigned to individual cages at 17 wk of age. Blood samples were collected from the hens at 21 wk of age. Subsets of T lymphocytes (CD4+, CD8+, and gammadelta cells) were measured using flow cytometry. Concentrations of plasma IgG were quantified with western blot analysis and immunoprecipitation assay. Hematological parameters were collected from blood smears. The HGPS hens had significantly higher percentages of blood lymphocytes and CD4+:CD8+ ratios of circulating T cells (P < 0.01) and tended to have more, but not significantly, gammadelta T cells (P = 0.07) than the LGPS hens. In contrast, the LGPS hens exhibited eosinophilia and heterophilia and greater heterophil:lymphocyte ratios (P < 0.01). The concentrations of plasma IgG were also significantly higher in the LGPS hens (P < 0.01). These results suggest that genetic selection for group productivity and longevity also alters the immunological and hematological systems of hens. The line difference in regulation of T cells, leukocytes, and production of IgG may suggest that different genes or modes of gene action are involved.

Behavioral and physiological changes were measured following tail-docking in primiparous heifers. One month before projected first parturition, 21 heifers were assigned to control (nondocked), docked, or docked with lidocaine groups. Heifers were banded to initiate tail-docking and the necrotic tail was removed after 144 h. Physiological, immunological, and behavioral measures were taken for 240 h following banding. Cortisol was not different for control and treated heifers. Haptoglobin increased for docked heifers by 168 h postbanding (24 h postdocking). Alpha1-acid glycoprotein decreased as haptoglobin increased, and alpha1-acid glycoprotein increased until 240 h postbanding. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha increased only with lidocaine and did not show an effect of docking by 240 h postbanding. Lymphocyte phenotyping demonstrated increased CD4+ and CD8+ peripheral blood mononuclear cells for docked plus lidocaine heifers and gammadelta+ cells of those heifers tended to be reduced compared with docked heifers. Eating was the only maintenance behavior affected by banding in both docked groups (increased with banding and decreased with docking). The initial banding procedure did not alter heifer physiology and altered only eating behavior, but the cutting of the tail (docking) increased haptoglobin in response to the tissue damage and returned eating behavior to baseline. The use of lidocaine to anesthetize the tail before banding affected lymphocyte phenotypes and TNF-alpha (banding alone did not alter these parameters).

Two experiments were conducted to examine the effects of the form of alpha-tocopherol or interactions of alpha-tocopherol with vitamin A on its bioavailability. In Experiment 1, Holstein steers were fed a diet that was low in vitamins A and E for 1 mo; then, steers were blocked by body weight (X = 97.5 kg) and assigned randomly to one of four oral treatments: 1) no added vitamins, 2) 442 mg of retinyl acetate, 3) 1342 mg of D-alpha-tocopherol, or 4) 442 mg of retinyl acetate and 1342 mg of D-alpha-tocopherol. Each treatment was given as a pulse dose. Blood was sampled over a 36-h period. Concentrations of plasma retinyl palmitate peaked at 2 to 6 h postsupplementation for all calves and then peaked again at 22 to 28 h for calves receiving vitamin supplements. Concentrations of plasma alpha-tocopherol peaked earliest with D-alpha-tocopherol supplementation alone at 12 to 20 h after supplementation, but simultaneous supplementation with retinyl acetate resulted in lower plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations. Plasma retinyl palmitate decreased during peak alpha-tocopherol concentrations. In Experiment 2, blood and tissue were analyzed after a single gastric tube administration of a powder (DL-alpha-tocopheryl acetate) or a liquid (D-alpha-tocopherol) form of vitamin E to Holstein calves. Plasma and kidney concentrations of alpha-tocopherol were higher when calves were fed D-alpha-tocopherol than when calves were fed the DL-alpha-tocopherol acetate form. Concentrations in the liver, spleen, adipose tissue, heart, muscle, cellular blood fraction, and gut did not differ between the two forms.

Oils from cold-water fish are rich in (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids, in particular eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6). Although those fatty acids are beneficial in the prevention of cardiac disease and have anti-inflammatory properties, they can also decrease survival rates of mice during challenges with food-borne pathogens. This study was designed to determine dietary fat effects on Kupffer cells and splenocytes during a Salmonella typhimurium challenge. Mice were fed a low corn oil diet (3%, control), high corn oil diet (20%, HCO), or a menhaden fish oil diet (17% + 3% corn oil, FO) for 28 days and then orally given 3.1 x 10(8) colony-forming units of S. typhimurium. Kupffer cells and splenocytes were separated immediately prior to and on days 6, 10, and 14 postchallenge. Fish oil decreased Kupffer cell phagocytosis and oxidative burst early in the infection and adhesion molecule (CD18) expression at the end of the infection. In splenocytes, fish oil affected Ia expression prior to and late in the infection and depressed CD18 expression late in the infection. These data suggest that the diet affected Kupffer cells most early in the infection but affected splenocytes primarily later in the infection. Therefore, because the greatest death rate during an S. typhimurium infection occurs early, the reduced function of the Kupffer cells is probably a major factor.

Holstein calves (n = 44) were fed milk replacers from d 3 to 45 with low or high concentrations of vitamin A (7000 or 87,000 IU/kg) and vitamin E (11.2 or 57 IU/kg) to examine the influence of vitamin concentrations on vitamin bioavailability and leukocyte functions. Concentrations of alpha-tocopherol in plasma reflected increased vitamin E but were unaffected by increased vitamin A. Plasma retinol concentrations were greatest with high supplementation of vitamins A and E at wk 3; however, at wk 6, plasma of calves fed high vitamin A and low vitamin E contained the most retinol. Increased supplementation of vitamin A improved fecal consistency compared with that for calves fed the low vitamin A diet at wk 3 and 4. At wk 3, calves that received increased supplementation of vitamins E and A had enhanced neutrophil bactericidal activity compared with that of calves with increased individual vitamins. Lymphocyte DNA synthesis and chemotactic index were unaffected by dietary treatments. Results indicate that increased vitamin A in milk replacer did not affect plasma vitamin E concentrations, benefited fecal scores regardless of vitamin E concentrations, but was only beneficial to bactericidal activity of neutrophils in conjunction with increased vitamin E.

Blood neutrophils and pulmonary alveolar macrophages, isolated from calves at 3 and 6 wk of age, were cultured in medium without added vitamins or supplemented with 100 micrograms/dl of vitamin A, 1000 micrograms/dl of vitamin E, 100 micrograms/dl of vitamin A plus 1000 micrograms/dl of vitamin E, or .25 micrograms/dl of beta-carotene plus 1000 micrograms/dl of vitamin E. Macrophage bactericidal activity improved with supplementation of vitamins A plus E compared with supplementation of beta-carotene plus E or vitamin E at wk 3. Neutrophil bactericidal activity decreased with all vitamin E treatments at wk 3 and with vitamins E or A plus E at wk 6. Neutrophil phagocytosis improved at wk 3 with supplementations of vitamins A, E, and A plus E. The chemotactic index improved with beta-carotene and vitamin E compared with vitamin E alone at wk 3 and at wk 6 with vitamin E compared with vitamin A and control treatments. Retinol content of neutrophils varied at wk 3, but, by wk 6, cells supplemented with vitamins A, E, or A plus E had greater retinol concentrations than control cells. Neutrophil alpha-tocopherol concentrations at wk 3 increased from those of controls with supplementation of vitamin E or beta-carotene and vitamin E, but, at wk 6, vitamin E-supplemented cells were different only from vitamin A-supplemented cells. These data suggest that optimal plasma concentrations of vitamins A and E exist for leukocyte function.