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Among several reasons preventing the effective labour market integration of immigrant women, the motherhood penalty and unpaid care responsibilities stand out prominently. In line with this, the present scoping review shows how motherhood affects the labour market integration of immigrant women in Australia, Canada, the UK, and the USA. This review shows that parenthood exacerbates the gender pay gap and limits labour market access, favouring men with children over immigrant mothers. Moreover, the effect of the motherhood penalty might be moderated by the level of education, age of the children, and the country of origin/ethnicity of immigrants. In the four countries examined, labour market outcomes for immigrant women are particularly poor. Factors contributing to this include limited language proficiency, traditional gender norms that restrict the full-time employment of certain groups of immigrant women, and institutional barriers like work-permit processing delays. To address these challenges, Australia, Canada, the UK, and the USA have implemented various policies facilitating immigrant mothers' workforce participation. These measures include language and legal-system education, subsidised childcare, and integration programmes for both mothers and children. Additionally, some programmes in Canada and the USA provide employment assistance and financial support for childcare, while Australia and the UK offer comprehensive integration and settlement services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pay gaps for women and minorities have persisted after accounting for observable differences. Recently, a dozen US states have banned employer access to salary histories. We analyze the effects of these salary history bans (SHBs) on private employer wage posting and pay. We develop a theoretical model of firms' choices between posting wages and bargaining, drawing out the implications of SHBs on wages for different groups of jobs. We then implement a comprehensive analysis in a difference-in-differences design, using Burning Glass job posting data in the US and the Current Population Survey. The results show that following SHBs, private employers posted wages more often and increased pay for job changers, particularly for women (6.2%) and non-whites (5.8%). The results imply that when employers can access applicants' salary histories while bargaining over wages, they can take advantage of past inequities, perpetuating inequality. There is also no evidence of adverse selection of workers overall or adverse employer reactions in the short run. Bargaining behavior and the use of salary histories appear to account for much of the difference in pay between disadvantaged job changers and others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social progress through improved treatment of minority groups (e.g., forbidding racial or sexual harassment) may or may not spread to corporate cultures through competition. We provide a theory of corporate culture, and we show that emergent, progressive corporate cultures can displace existing, regressive ones when the prevailing wage gap is large between majority and minority groups. The model provides testable predictions on racial and gender wage gaps across firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Legislation and regulation have been effective in reducing the gender wage gap in developed countries; however, the gap still exists globally, and progress towards narrowing the gap has been unacceptably slow even in regions where it is improving. This study presents the analysis of gender wage gap in Kenya’s urban labor market by using the World Bank Skills Towards Employability and Productivity Survey (WBSTEPS). This study employed Mincer earnings regressions with Heckman selection correction and the Blinder-Oaxaca and Neumark decomposition procedures to answer the research questions. The results of the wage determination and participation in the labor market show that there is no selectivity-bias problem. Personal characteristics such as education and age, as well as work-related characteristics, are important factors in determining earnings. The magnitude of the gender wage gap varies across the wage distribution, and the results of the wage decomposition reveal that women in urban Kenya earn 84.5-to-86% of men’s earnings. The earnings gap is overwhelmingly due to differences in returns to endowments, which account for between 70% and 94.7% of the total earnings gap. Admittedly, the study found evidence of discrimination against women in the returns to endowments, but also observed pronounced favoritism towards men. However, discrimination against women is more pronounced than favoritism towards men. Addressing the gender wage gap in Kenya requires a multifaceted approach that tackles both systemic biases against women and structural barriers that hinder women from accessing equal opportunities in education, training, and career advancement and government policies that minimize favoritism towards men.

Employing China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) survey data from 2014 to 2018, this paper studies the impact of the digital economy on the gender wage gap. Benchmark results suggest that the digital economy can significantly narrow the gender wage gap. The mechanism analysis shows that the digital economy bridges the gender wage gap by reducing family care burdens and improving the employment quality in favour of women. The heterogeneity analysis shows that the digital economy is conducive to narrowing the gender wage gap of the group with low and medium labour skills and the group with higher family burdens, suggesting the inclusiveness of the digital economy for disadvantaged women. These findings have important policy implications and provide evidence for improving women's economic condition and narrowing the gender wage gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to analyse the gender wage gap (GWG) in Spain adopting a labour market segmentation approach. Once we obtain the different labour segments (or idiosyncratic labour markets), we are able to decompose the GWG into its observed and unobserved heterogeneity components. Design/methodology/approach: We use the data from the Continuous Sample of Working Lives for the year 2021 (matched employer–employee [EE] data). Contingency tables and clustering techniques are applied to employment data to identify idiosyncratic labour markets where men and/or women of different ages tend to match/associate with different sectors of activity and occupation groups. Once this "heatmap" of labour associations is known, we can analyse its hottest areas (the idiosyncratic labour markets) from the perspective of wage discrimination by gender (Oaxaca-Blinder model). Findings: In Spain, in general, men are paid more than women, and this is not always justified by their respective attributes. Among our results, the fact stands out that women tend to move to those idiosyncratic markets (biclusters) where the GWG (in favour of men) is smaller. Research limitations/implications: It has not been possible to obtain remuneration data by job-placement, but an annual EE relationship is used. Future research should attempt to analyse the GWG across the wage distribution in the different idiosyncratic markets. Practical implications: Our combination of methodologies can be adapted to other economies and variables and provides detailed information on the labour-matching process and gender wage discrimination in segmented labour markets. Social implications: Our contribution is very important for labour market policies, trying to reduce unfair inequalities. Originality/value: The study of the GWG from a novel labour segmentation perspective can be interesting for other researchers, institutions and policy makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To obtain a more complete understanding of the persisting gender earnings gap in Germany, this paper investigates both the cross‐sectional and lifetime dimension of gender inequalities. Based on a dynamic microsimulation model, we analyse how gender differences accumulate over work lives to examine the lifetime dimension of the gender gap. We estimate an average gender gap in lifetime earnings of 51.5 per cent for birth cohorts 1964–72. We show that this unadjusted gender lifetime earnings gap increases strongly with the number of children, ranging from 17.3 per cent for childless women to 68.0 per cent for women with three or more children. Results from a counterfactual analysis approach show an adjusted gender gap in lifetime earnings of around 10 per cent, suggesting that the gender gap in lifetime earnings is rather driven by gender differences in observable characteristics than by differences in rewards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the issue of inequality by using the example of the banking and financial services industry workers' wages in 2022 in the most famous American metropolitan areas, focusing on 3 of its dimensions: gender inequality, racial inequality, and pay gaps in this sector compared to others. The study is based on data from the American Community Survey (ACS) conducted by the Census Bureau. Population-level figures are derived using the replicate weights calculated in the article using STATA 16.1 software (the information in the ACS is contained in raw microdata form, the ACS is a probability sample, so the sampling weights derived by factoring in the non-response bias are essential to arrive at the population-level estimates). The financial services sector plays a significant role in the economies of these metropolitan areas, employing an average of 7.77% of adult workers (the highest in Phoenix (10.41%) and Dallas (9.77%)). The study showed that in these megacities, financial services workers earned 64.77% more in 2022 than workers in other sectors of the local economy, with the highest gap in New York (111.24%) and Boston (80.81%). Women in the financial sector of these cities earn, on average, 65.59% less than men, with the largest gender gap in Chicago (71.84%) and Dallas (71.26%). The earnings gap for black and non-white workers compared to their white counterparts in the cities studied averaged 36.16%, with the largest sectoral gaps in Houston (60.14%) and Riverside (55.06%). The findings can inform the development of policies that promote equitable pay practices, enforce stronger anti-discrimination laws, and support diversity and inclusion initiatives within the industry.

We demonstrate an inverse relationship between women's financial equality status with men (as proxied by gender wage gap), and women's entrepreneurship participation at the U.S. state level. Gender wage gap affects women's opportunity cost of the entrepreneurship decision. In states where women's status is lower, women's opportunity cost of becoming an entrepreneur is lower because their wages are lower, increasing women's entrepreneurship participation. We also demonstrate that states' demographics are important factors, but only education is specific to women. Collectively, we find that women choose to be entrepreneurial when their status is lower, which reflects women's economic resiliency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides new evidence of the gender wage gap among recent university graduates at different stages of their early career. Using a unique administrative dataset from Russia, we estimate the gender wage gap at means and across wage distribution for a cohort of 2018 university graduates during the first 4 years after graduation. We explore the contribution of educational and job factors to the explanation of the gap. Although a substantial gap of 14% is already present at labour market entry, it is two times smaller compared to the gap for the overall working population. Eighty five percent of the entry wage gap can be explained with differences in fields of study, work experience, and job characteristics. More than 4 years after graduation, the gender wage gap experiences a dramatic increase, reaching 26%. Only 28% of the resulting gap can be explained by the observed characteristics, including industrial and occupational segregation. The size of the gap varies drastically in different parts of the wage distribution, suggesting the existence of a strong glass ceiling effect from the very beginning of graduate careers. The rapidly expanding early career gender wage gap with a growing unexplained component suggests that education policies may have limited ability to promote gender equality in the labour market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women's representation in managerial positions is a common metric for gender equity in organizations. Whether women managers improve gender equity among their subordinates is, however, less clear. Drawing on rich longitudinal personnel data from a large Korean food company, we provide new insight into this question by focusing attention on key micro-contexts for interaction and relational politics within organizations: workgroups. Building on social-psychological theories about in-group preference and value threats, we theorize that workgroup gender composition conditions the relationship between supervisor gender and gender earnings differentials. Results from regression models with workgroup fixed effects confirm this insight. Women supervisors are associated with smaller gender earnings gaps in workgroups when they are male-dominated. This relationship is stronger for less-advantaged workers, with supervisor gender and workgroup gender composition mattering more for "sticky floors" than "glass ceilings." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper critically examines the claim that Utah is "the most sexist state" in the United States, as suggested by a WalletHub report ranking it lowest in "Women's Equality." Utilizing an economic analysis from the Austrian School perspective, this study scrutinizes the data, metrics, and conclusions of reports by the Utah Women & Leadership Project (UWLP). The analysis focuses on distinguishing statistical disparities from sexism, proposing that observed gender inequalities in Utah are largely influenced by cultural and economic factors, particularly the state's high marriage rate and traditional gender roles. Contrary to the notion that sexism predominantly drives gender disparities, the paper argues that personal choices and subjective value theory play significant roles in shaping these outcomes. The study highlights the importance of considering cultural context, individual preferences, and the marital asymmetry hypothesis when interpreting gender-related data, challenging the assertion that Utah's gender disparities are primarily due to sexist attitudes. The findings suggest that Utah's gender gaps in areas such as income and workforce participation are more accurately attributed to the state's unique cultural and economic landscape rather than pervasive sexism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Historia Agraria is the property of Historia Agraria and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to identify the relationship between the wage gap and the educational level of men and women. Design/methodology/approach: Desk research was conducted using secondary data (Statistics Poland) on wages for men and women, as well as data on college graduates by groups of education majors. Findings: A large number of women achieve higher education; additionally, there are more female graduates than male graduates in many groups of education majors, nevertheless the wage gap mainly affects women. Research limitations/implications: Limitations are mainly due to the fact that not all female graduates of the groups of education majors identified in the article enter the workforce according to their education. For this reason, comparing the percentage of female graduates of specific groups of education majors to data on the amount of the wage gap in the corresponding (groups of education majors) groups of major occupations can only be a preview. Practical implications: The conclusions of the analysis may be an incentive to introduce measures to help equalize opportunities in the labor market, which will normalize the problem of lower wages for women in relation to men (assuming a comparable level of education). Social implications: Awareness of the existence of the problem of wage discrimination affecting women may have an impact on the quality of their lives as well as the work, since wages are one of the most important motivational factors. The analyses included in the article may increase awareness of the high level of education of women in Poland. Originality/value: The article holistically shows the problem of wage discrimination against women in the Polish labor market and the fact that it is not caused by differences in education between men and women. The article shows the magnitude of the problem and how lack of knowledge on this subject may lead the society to draw misleading conclusions, thereby exacerbating gender inequality in the labor market and reinforcing existing gender stereotypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Sexuality, Gender & Policy Journal is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Economics is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The "Symposium on Misallocation and Structural Transformation" focuses on the processes of resource allocation and structural change and their impact on economic growth and development. The symposium recognizes the importance of understanding the mechanisms and underlying forces that lead to resource misallocation and structural change, particularly in lower income countries. The articles in the symposium explore topics such as the effects of financial frictions on aggregate productivity, the growth miracle and slowdown in South Korea's manufacturing sector, the decline in business dynamism in China, and the role of family migration in structural transformation. These papers contribute to our understanding of resource allocation and structural change and provide insights into important factors affecting economic growth and development. [Extracted from the article]

In this paper, I analyze the determinants of cohabitation, marriage, and divorce in the USA. I first document that college graduates are more likely to marry, and less likely to cohabit and divorce, than non-college educated individuals. To account for these facts within a unified framework, I build and estimate a life-cycle model of partnership formation and dissolution where income processes differ by gender and education. I find that the main driver of education-based differences in mating strategies is that the gender wage gap is larger among college graduates. Since divorce is more costly than ending a cohabitation, marriages tend to be more stable and therefore offer women more protection from human capital depreciation during non-employment. Consequently, marriage is a more effective means of enforcing household specialization. Since college graduates have more room for household specialization, they are more likely to choose marriage. The variance of income shocks, which affects the demand for consumption insurance, is larger among college graduates. Even if the variance of income shocks could potentially explain partnership choices, simulations suggest a small role of income volatility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 1960s, two landmark statutes—the Equal Pay and Civil Rights Acts—targeted the long-standing practice of employment discrimination against U.S. women. For the next 15 years, the gender gap in median earnings among full-time, full-year workers changed little, leading many scholars to conclude that the legislation was ineffectual. This article revisits this conclusion using two research designs, which leverage (i) cross-state variation in preexisting state equal pay laws and (ii) variation in the 1960 gender gap across occupation-industry-state-group cells to capture differences in the legislation's incidence. Both designs suggest that federal antidiscrimination legislation led to striking gains in women's relative wages, which were concentrated among below-median wage earners. These wage gains offset preexisting labor market forces, which worked to depress women's relative pay growth, resulting in the apparent stability of the gender gap at the median and mean in the 1960s and 1970s. The data show little evidence of short-term changes in women's employment but suggest that firms reduced their hiring and promotion of women in the medium to long term. The historical record points to the key role of the Equal Pay Act in driving these changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gender ask gap measures the extent to which women ask for lower salaries than comparable men. This article studies its role in generating wage inequality, using novel data from an online recruitment platform for full-time engineering jobs: Hired.com. To use the platform, job candidates must post an ask salary, stating how much they want to make in their next job. Firms then apply to candidates by offering them a bid salary, solely based on the candidate's résumé and ask salary. If the candidate is hired, a final salary is recorded. After adjusting for résumé characteristics, the ask gap is 2.9%, the bid gap is 2.2%, and the final offer gap is 1.4%. Further controlling for the ask salary explains the entirety of the residual gender gaps in bid and final salaries. To further provide evidence of the causal effect of the ask salary on the bid salary, I exploit an unanticipated change in how candidates were prompted to provide their ask. For some candidates in mid-2018, the answer box used to solicit the ask salary was changed from an empty field to an entry prefilled with the median bid salary for similar candidates. I find that this change drove the ask, bid, and final offer gaps to zero. In addition, women did not receive fewer bids or final offers than men did due to the change, suggesting they faced little penalty for demanding comparable wages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from the Chinese Household Income Project surveys of 2002, 2013, and 2018 and employing decomposition methods, this study is the first to examine the impact of the double negative effect on the wages of ethnic minority women in urban China. Three key conclusions emerge. First, the results indicate the presence of a double negative effect, with the gender wage gap effect being more pronounced than the ethnicity wage gap effect. This suggests that discrimination against women is the primary factor contributing to the formation of the wage gaps. Second, the decomposition results on wage distribution suggest that the return effect on both ethnicity and gender wage gaps is greater for the high-wage group than for the low- and medium-wage groups, suggesting workplace discrimination may be much more severe for the high-wage group. Third, the wage gaps and determinants of their formation differ by heterogenous ethnic minority groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonprobability web surveys suffer from selection and coverage biases and are generally not representative of the target population. To carry out statistical modelling in a nonprobability web survey, we explore different methods of statistical adjustments to compensate for biases through the use of a probability-based reference sample. We also show that we need to account for these biases when imputing missing data. The methods for statistical adjustments include propensity score weighting with post-stratification and a technique called sample matching. For the substantive study, we use a nonprobability online web-survey taken from the WageIndicator (WI) programme (www.wageindicator.org) to estimate the gender pay gap (GPG) using the 2016 WI survey data from the Netherlands. We use the 2016 EU-SILC data as the probability-based reference sample. Based on the study of GPG, we show that using propensity score weighting with post-stratification outperforms sample matching with respect to compensating for biases and improves the outcome of the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition model in terms of the degree of similarity relative to patterns found in representative probability samples in the Netherlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the influence of organizational practices on gender in/equality in a unique setting: the reformed Israeli kibbutz. The transition of the kibbutz from all members receiving an allowance to waged labor provides an opportunity to explore the impact of wage determination systems on gender pay inequality. The study uses a mixed-method approach: descriptive statistics of administrative data, in-depth interviews, and a focus group with kibbutz management. The findings demonstrate that a "market-based logic," embedded with gendered preconceptions of "women's work," can seep into an organization through a shift in the wage determination system, and increase gender inequality. The findings also highlight the lack of organizational awareness about the gendered consequences of this shift, or even their uncritical acceptance of the "value hierarchy" as ordained by the market. The study thus supports the theory positing gender as a hidden but integral aspect of reward systems in contemporary labor markets. HIGHLIGHTS The choice of a wage determination system is critical for gender inequality. "Women's work" is valued higher by analytical job evaluation systems, which reduce gender biases. Market-based wage determinations introduce biases and increase organizational gender inequality. Management prefers market-based wage determinations due to competition and costs. The "free market" not only obscures gender hierarchies but also legitimizes them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender interests are crucial in the redistributive equity of the pension system. This paper investigates the gender gap in retirement pension incomes of urban employees in China by using data from the Chinese Household Income Project and decomposes the main factors contributing to the gender gap. We find that the pension income of female employees after retirement is significantly lower than that of male employees. Decomposition reveals that age, pre-retirement wage level, and type of work unit are the main factors contributing to the gender gap. Further, we find that the gender gap in pension incomes is lower for employees employed in the public sector than for those employed in enterprises, because enterprises are more affected by the market environment than the public sector, and female employees tend to suffer more market discrimination. In general, females still face the challenge of having significantly lower pension standards than males after retirement. Plain language summary: Pensions serve as a primary source of economic support for many insured employees after retirement, guaranteeing them a basic standard of living. However, gender inequality in pension income is evident in social life, with the pension income of female employees often lower than that of male employees. This study confirms this phenomenon by examining the gender gap in pension income for urban employees in China. The study finds that age, pre-retirement wage level, and type of work unit are the main factors contributing to the gender gap. In addition, the gender gap in pension income is smaller for public sector employees compared to enterprise employees, due to China's unique market environment, where the pension income of female enterprise employees is more negatively affected by market discrimination. Therefore, policy recommendations are proposed to appropriately extend the statutory retirement age for females, increase the wage level of the female labor force, and allow females to share their husbands' pensions. These recommendations aim to increase the pension incomes of female employees after retirement, thereby averting their risk of elderly poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of wage inequality concentrate on private wages. Public sector wages are typically assumed to contribute to the overall wage equality. We challenge this understanding in an analysis of the relative skill premium in the public versus private sectors. The analysis of heterogeneity across gender and geography is based on rich register data for Norway. The raw data confirm the relative wage compression in the public sector. However, this is a male phenomenon and only prevalent in large cities when unobserved worker and firm characteristics are taken into account. With identification based on shifters between private and public sectors and movers between city-size groups, wage setting for female workers in the public sector increases wage inequality in all regions, particularly in the periphery. The result is consistent with policies promoting the recruitment of high-educated female workers and the expansion of public services in the periphery counterbalancing the desired equality effect of public wages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research focuses on the effects of incentive pay schemes (IPSs) on the within-establishment gender wage gap and explores whether the intensity of intangible capital at the industry level moderates such effects. To this aim, we use establishment-level data from various waves (from 2006 to 2018) of the SES – Structure of Earning Surveys for the five largest European economies (Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and the UK). Data on intangible capital stocks (on 25 industries) are from the EU-KLEMS database. The analysis, which addresses potential endogeneity issues, indicates that more pervasive use of IPSs alleviates the adjusted gender pay gap. However, this inequality-attenuating effect of IPSs materialises only in contexts where intangible capital intensity is low. The result is confirmed if we replicate the analysis in subsamples of establishments belonging to industries with high/low intensity of various intangible capital components, but training emerges as a notable exception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We provide causal evidence that children's school schedules contribute to the persistence of the gender pay gap between parents. Historically, French children have had no school on Wednesdays. In 2013, a reform reallocated some classes to Wednesday mornings. Exploiting variations in the application of this reform over time and age of the youngest child, we show that mothers are more likely to adopt a regular Monday–Friday full-time working schedule after the reform, while fathers' labor supply is unchanged. Consequently, the reform decreased the gender gap in monthly wages by 6 percent, generating welfare benefits that substantially outweigh its costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We adopt a meta‐analytic approach to study the relationship between gender‐related institutional environments/logics at both organizational level and societal level on the one hand and gender heterogeneities in individual prosocial behaviors on the other. Analyzing data from 138 empirical studies covering 35 countries, we obtain evidence of gender heterogeneity in prosocial behaviors under different gender‐related institutional environments/logics. Our meta‐analysis helps obtain several important findings. For instance, a gender gap in pro‐environmental behaviors is more likely to be observed in societies/countries with low gender egalitarianism with women showing less prosocial behavior than their men counterparts. Moreover, women under the same institutional environments also show significantly more anti‐corruption behaviors than do their men counterparts, while this difference is much smaller (i.e., with smaller effect size) given the institutions of high gender egalitarianism. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the findings for academic research and managerial practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Retos: Nuevas Perspectivas de Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación is the property of Federacion Espanola de Asociaciones de Docentes de Educacion Fisica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Prime Minister Kishida's 'unprecedented' measures to counter declining births in Japan include increasing youth incomes, extending childcare leave entitlement and employee social insurance entitlement to precarious workers, and targeting 50% of fathers to take childcare leave by 2025 by increasing the childcare allowance to 80% of salary. He also proposed reskilling opportunities, and mandating firms to disclose their gender wage gap and gender managerial gap. However, reform should also make fundamental changes to Japanese employment practices and the Employee Social Insurance Scheme which is based on a breadwinner-housewife model. Unless the government explicitly moves towards a worker-carer model, the gender wage gap will stay high, and hinder marriage and births, since double income is seen as a must among younger generation. Fundamental change should be in line with the new attitudes of young non-married males and females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Gender equality and the gender income gap in medicine are long-standing global problems. Although gender-related differences have been widely studied in developed countries, they remain unclear in underdeveloped regions. In 2010, China initiated a national compulsory service program (CSP) to train qualified general practitioners in rural and remote areas. This study aimed to evaluate gender income differences for early career CSP and non-CSP (NCSP) graduates in underdeveloped areas. Methods: A cohort study was conducted with 3620 CSP and NCSP graduates from four medical universities in Central and Western China. Baseline surveys and six follow-up surveys were conducted between 2015 and 2022. Incomes, including monthly mean income and proportion of performance-based income, were measured as the key outcome variables. Multivariate linear regression models were used to identify the gender income gap. Results: NCSP graduates had higher average monthly incomes than CSP graduates. In the seventh year after graduation, the average monthly income for NCSP graduates was 7859 CNY while was 5379 CNY for CSP graduates. After controlling for demographic characteristics, the gender monthly income gap for CSP graduates was expanded from the fourth year (3.0%) to the sixth year (5.9%) after graduation, and that for NCSP graduates was expanded from the fifth year (11.9%) to the seventh year (16.3%) after graduation. Regarding performance-based income, it was 58.9% for NCSP graduates and 45.8% for CSP graduates in the seventh year after graduation. After controlling for performance-based income proportion, the gender income gap was reduced from 5.9 to 4.0% in the sixth year after graduation for CSP graduates, and from 16.3 to 14.4% for NCSP graduates in the seventh year after graduation. Conclusion: An extensive and ever-increasing gender income gap exists among young doctors in the early stages of their careers in underdeveloped areas of China. The high proportion of performance-based income among men is one of the main explanations for the observed difference. A more explicit compensation system must be established to enhance support for female health workers. Highlights: A seven-year cohort study examined the gender income gap for practitioners in early career stage. An increasing gender income gap exists for doctors in underdeveloped areas in China. The income gap was smaller for those trained by China's compulsory services program. Higher performance-based income for men is the main explanation for the income gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Background Methods Findings Conclusion Implications for nursing policy and health policy To investigate gender differences in the actual and expected income among psychiatric nurses in China.Although studies have shown that male nurses earn more than female nurses in other countries, there are no published data regarding gender income differences among psychiatric nurses in China.We conducted a cross‐sectional study involving 41 representative psychiatric hospitals in China. Demographic, income, and job‐related data were analyzed using the inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) based on the propensity score.The sample included 9256 psychiatric nurses, and nearly four‐fifths (79.3%) were female. Males earned slightly higher average monthly incomes than female nurses, while initial analysis showed no significant overall gender income difference (p > 0.05). Notably, most participants (92.5%) desired an income increase of at least 10%, with over half (56.2%) expressing significant dissatisfaction with their current income. After adjustment using propensity score combined with IPTW, females in the junior and mid‐level groups had significantly lower income than their male counterparts (all p < 0.01), despite having different night shift patterns. However, there were no significant gender differences in actual or expected income among senior‐level psychiatric nurses (p > 0.05).A majority of psychiatric nurses in China express dissatisfaction with their current incomes and expect higher incomes. Male nurses earned significantly more than female nurses in the junior and mid‐level professional groups, potentially due to their differences in night shifts.Policymakers and hospital administrators should optimize the income structures of nurses and develop targeted policies to address the gender income gap. Improving nurse income has the potential to enhance motivation and satisfaction within the profession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The status of women in economics is increasingly researched. However, the gender earnings gap among economics faculty is rarely examined due to data limitations. Relying on Canadian Public Sector Salary Disclosure lists, we construct a unique dataset of earnings, credentials, and research productivity of economics faculty members. We find a ceteris paribus gender earnings gap, which is driven by full professors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is implausible that the spread of Covid-19 has not had an impact on entrepreneurship in Peru, considering that on average 41.1% of the Economically Active Population is engaged in starting their own businesses. The objectives of this research are as follows: To estimate the influencing factors for individuals to become entrepreneurs through probabilistic regression models. To quantify the gender income gap in entrepreneurship using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition. Finally, to calculate the technical efficiency in the production of entrepreneurial activities using stochastic frontier models. The National Household Survey conducted annually by the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics in Peru was utilized, with a sample size of 21,243 entrepreneurs in 2019, 9,935 in 2020, and 18,042 in 2021. The highlighted results are as follows: Firstly, variables such as age and being the head of a household increase the likelihood of both men and women becoming entrepreneurs. On the other hand, the gender income gap was 78.0% in favor of men in 2019, 75.5% in 2020, and 76.4% in 2021. Lastly, in 2019 and 2020, the highest average technical efficiency, i.e., the percentage of total maximum achievable production, was observed in the commerce sector (79.5% and 7.94%, respectively), and in 2021, it was in the services sector (83.9%). Additionally, at the gender level, women exhibit higher efficiency in production and services activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The percentage of female doctorate holders has steadily increased in the Western world. Despite this trend, there is a scarcity of studies addressing gender disparities among doctorate holders, within and outside academia. We analyze the earnings of Icelandic doctorate holders either in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) or social sciences and humanities (SSH) and are employed within and outside academia. We contend that achieving gender-wage equality is crucial for doctorate holders, given that education worldwide is considered a means to empower women and a significant factor in reducing gender inequality and narrowing the pay gap. Our findings reveal a continuous gender gap in total earnings between the fifth and tenth career years regardless of the field of study or the employment being within or outside academia. Thus, our findings suggest that a Ph.D. does not improve women's earning power enough to close the gender pay gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The enduring global issue of women's underrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields carries significant implications for both societal advancement and economic growth. Despite the rise in women's enrollment in higher education, the persistent gender pay gap can be attributed in part to their limited presence in STEM domains, which tend to offer higher-paying career prospects. This study scrutinizes the impact of national policies on gender imbalances in STEM, focusing on the case of North Macedonia. It assesses existing measures and programs while proposing recommendations to foster gender parity in STEM both national and local scales. Employing a mixed research methodology, the study incorporates desktop research, statistical analysis of gender distribution in STEM fields, policy evaluations of national frameworks, and primary data collection through interviews and surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Covid-19 presents many social and economic challenges and exacerbates existing ones. One of these challenges is global poverty. Prior to the epidemic, poverty affected the rural population traditionally. Global poverty can spread to urban areas now with COVID-19 outbreak. Poverty increased in the United States in 2020 as the coronavirus outbreak, affecting the economy and rising unemployment. New figures confirm that the recession may have widened the gap between rich and poor, with those at the bottom of the economic ladder suffering the most, such as the rural population. In this study, we examine the relationship between Covid outbreak, governance and economic performance and its impact on number in poverty. To this end, data from the Center for American Progress is analyzed over 10 years (from 2011–2020) among the 49 states in America through spatial econometric techniques for panel data. The effect of each state's condition was examined on neighboring states. The results showed that the governance index (with a negative sign) and Income inequality variable (with a positive sign), have the greatest impact on poverty. The unemployment, Gender wage gap, Hunger and food insecurity, Health insurance, Population and Higher education also have an impact on poverty. The policy recommendations of this study are that because the variable of governance (accountability and responsibility of the government to compensate for the damage caused by the covid outbreak) is one of the most effective variables to control poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resumen: La prima de paternidad y la penalización de la maternidad son conceptos clave en el estudio de la brecha de género en los ingresos. Los autores examinan la variación de ingresos por género en la economía de plataformas de China antes y después de tener hijos, mediante un modelo de mínimos cuadrados ordinarios, un análisis de los mecanismos de influencia y la descomposición de Oaxaca‐Blinder. Constatan la desaparición de la penalización de la maternidad y la transformación de la prima de paternidad en penalización por efecto de las presiones laborales y la segregación ocupacional de género, lo que obliga a los hombres a conciliar el trabajo y el cuidado infantil de una forma no tan prevalente en otros sectores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing upon contemporary research, this paper examines whether there is a relationship of STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths) bachelor and master graduates to the gender pay gap (GPG) in the 27 EU Member states in 2013–2020 using a novel cross‐sectional data set based on the 2013 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED). International panel data were analysed with the dynamic modelling fixed effects method and compared with the results received from the cross‐sectional analysis executed with the help of Bayesian model averaging methods. Our findings suggest that STEM education plays a significant role in forming the GPG. We can see a negative, robust and statistically significant effect of bachelor‐ and master‐level female STEM graduates on the GPG and a positive statistically significant effect of bachelor‐ and master‐level male STEM graduates on the GPG. The permanently lower women‐to‐men ratio in STEM education and those employed in high‐end sectors of science and technology can be one of the drivers of the persistent GPG in developed countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore the wage effects of offshoring‐induced employment shocks in US commuting zones (CZs) and industries. Using data on petitions for the Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA), we measure such shocks by computing the share of TAA‐certified offshoring‐induced layoffs out of total employment. We further identify material‐offshoring shocks and service‐offshoring shocks and connect the TAA data to individual‐level worker data from the American Community Survey. Empirical results show statistically significant and negative wage effects of the CZ‐level offshoring shocks, especially for service offshoring. On the contrary, we find positive wage effects of industry‐level offshoring shocks in industries exposed to both types of offshoring. Furthermore, we show that offshoring is associated with the widening gender wage gap in local labor markets and that workers in production and highly‐offshorable occupations are more vulnerable to the CZ‐level offshoring shocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gender pay gap or gender gap is a relative disparity between women and men which is reflected in a variety of sectors in many societies. This difference exists in many countries and industries and is often related to factors such as occupational segregation, and differences in education and experience. The gender gap must also be considered in the context of gender inequality. The focus of this paper is to analyse the gender pay gap and gender inequality in participation in the labour market in Albanian society. Albanian society is committed to and has made significant progress towards gender equality policies. However, the gender gap is still present. The paper aims to analyse and interpret indicators of the Albanian gender pay gap in the context of culture of gender roles. Cultural values and socio-cultural conditions of one's society significantly impact the gender gap. The paper will highlight the sources of the gender gap in Albania as cultural and socio-economic. Understanding the gender inequality in Albanian society requires a complex analysis that examines the impact of socialisation, cultural norms and values, the division of gender roles, access to public life and the social privileges that gendering creates asymmetrically for men and women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The gender pay gap is a well-documented phenomenon in labor economics. Based on the 2018 Structure of Earnings Survey (SES), the authors estimate the impact of observable characteristics on the gender pay gap in Visegrad Group countries and provide policy recommendations on reducing the gender pay gap. Design/methodology/approach: The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition is applied to estimate the values of explained and unexplained parts of the gender pay gap. Gender pay gap in unadjusted as well as adjusted form is estimated using data on the individual level. Findings: The results show that unadjusted gender pay gap proved to be stable at more than 20%. The authors found evidence that education widens gender pay gap implying that men have higher returns on education than women. Tertiary education proved to be the highest contributor to widening of gender pay gap. Results also show that there is strong sectoral and occupational segregation. Decomposition proved that only 21% of gender pay gap could be explained by observed characteristics. The unexplained part showed negative values, meaning women would have higher wages, if they had characteristics like men. Research limitations/implications: Structure of Earnings Survey data are published every four years; therefore the authors' dataset from year 2018 might not completely reflect today's reality. Unfortunately, newer data are note available yet. Second, Structure of Earning Survey data do not contain variables representing social factors of respondents like marital status, number of children or labour market absence due to birth or childcare. Third, data used for this study do not contain firms that have less than 10 employees; therefore, considerable portion of the labour market is omitted. Originality/value: Results of this study will help policymakers understand the roots and causes of the gender pay gap in Visegrad Group countries but addressing this issue requires further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The eradication of gender discrimination traditions and the reduction of income disparities are vital global objectives outlined in Sustainable Development Goals 4 and 10, particularly in African nations where gender and income gaps persist. In alignment with these goals, this study employs wavelet techniques to investigate the relationship between income inequality and gender equality in 31 selected African countries, utilizing available data spanning from 1998 to 2020. Analysis of the co-movement between gender equality and income gap reveals that gender equality plays a crucial role in narrowing the income disparity in African countries. Expanding the analysis to control for the impact of economic growth through the implementation of partial wavelet tools, does not change these results. Further dissemination of our findings reveals that improved gender equality has a more pronounced impact on reducing income inequality in anglophone nations compared to their francophone counterparts, given variations in legal frameworks and religious practices. This emphasizes the importance of gender-sensitive policies in effectively addressing income inequality in Africa and suggests that policymakers should tailor country-specific policies to account for differences in gender laws, cultures, and religious beliefs. Overall, our study presents novel evidence linking income and gender inequality in Africa at country level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted a comparative study of the main determinants of the gender wage gap across the wage distribution in the tourism sector from a sectoral perspective. Using matched employer-employee data from Spain, we propose different wage decompositions across the wage distribution based on unconditional quantile regressions. In feminised sectors, such as hospitality and travel agencies, the gender wage gap follows an increasing trend across the wage distribution, whereas in masculinised sectors, such as transportation, the gap follows a decreasing trend, becoming non-significant at the highest wage levels. Except in the case of transportation, gender wage discrimination increases as wages increase and is the component that explains the major part of this gap. The results show that there are differential barriers to the promotion of women at a sectoral level that perpetuate gender roles, particularly in positions of high responsibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the total (market and non-market) gender-based production and consumption activities of Turkish men and women at different stages of their life-cycle. Turkey, one of the few emerging economies within the OECD, offers an interesting case-study as its female labour force participation rate is one of the lowest among OECD countries. Our results show that time spent by Turkish women on household activities is, on average, 30 h a week, basically three times as much as men. In fact, the women-to-men time use ratio for unpaid work is roughly twice as much as the OECD average. We estimate that the monetary value of women unpaid household production exceeds 29% of GDP, while the corresponding estimate for men is around 8%. Using the concept of life-cycle deficit, we also show that Turkish men are dependent on housework undertaken by women over their entire lifetime, which is an almost unique feature in comparison to the European and OECD countries. Finally, unlike other OECD countries that have introduced disincentives to early retirement, Turkish men continue to retire early but retain their acquired habits of not sharing the burden of household work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Occupation segregation explains a significant portion of the gender wage gap, with women working in lower paid female‐dominated occupations. We examine how childhood and adolescent exposure to gender biased norms about work influence this occupational sorting. We document that early life exposure to traditional gender role attitudes, which view women's role as caretakers, increase women's likelihood of employment in care occupations and decrease the likelihood for men, thereby increasing the gender care occupation gap. A decomposition of the factors affecting this sorting shows that a primary channel is through differences in the choice of post‐secondary field of study or major. Our results suggest that traditional gender role attitudes may work to segment the labor market for men and women and contribute to the gender wage gap. This suggests that more egalitarian gender role attitudes which increase the share of men entering care occupations would increase wages for both men and women, lowering the gender wage gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using Danish matched employer–employee data, I compare the relative pay of men and women to their relative productivity as measured by production function estimation. I find that the gender "productivity gap" is 8%, implying that almost two thirds of the residual gender wage gap is due to productivity differences between men and women. Motherhood plays an important role, yet it also reveals a puzzle: The pay gap for mothers is entirely explained by productivity, whereas the gap for non-mothers is not. In addition, the decoupling of pay and productivity for women without children happens during their prime-child bearing years. These estimates are robust to a variety of specifications for the impact of observables on productivity, and robust to accounting for endogenous sorting of women into less productive firms using a control-function approach. This paper also provides estimates of the productivity gap across industries and occupations, finding the same general patterns for mothers compared to women without children within these subgroups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]