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The review summarizes the literature and our own experimental data on the features of the structure, function, and protein metabolism in skeletal muscles of teleost fish (Teleostei). Despite the conserved basic mechanisms of muscle growth (myogenesis) and degradation in vertebrates, fish are characterized by unique features related to their poikilothermy, indeterminate growth, and a special role of skeletal muscle as a depot of plastic and energy substrates. Fish skeletal muscles show high plasticity in terms of their ability to undergo substantial anabolic or catabolic changes in response to environmental variables, such as temperature, photoperiod, and food availability. Under optimal (anabolic) conditions, fish muscle tissue grows by hypertrophy and hyperplasia at an extremely high rate, while during the periods of high energy demand, including migration, starvation, and gonad maturation, catabolism of skeletal muscle proteins temporarily dominates. However, degradation of fish muscle tissue can be profound enough to exceed its regenerative capacity: both genetic programs and responses to exogenous signals of excessive strength and duration can be implemented via this scenario. An extreme and demonstrative example of the mobilization of muscle protein reserves and utilization of resulting amino acids for energy production and synthesis of stage-specific gonadal proteins are Pacific salmonids whose exhaustion during spawning is so great that results in their death. Fish myopathies and the potential of fish as objects for human disease modeling are also considered.

As applied to bone, ���determinate growth��� identifies an upper limit to size and the point when normal endochondral ossification ceases. This contrasts with ���indeterminate growth���, which proceeds through the entire life of the animal. In this study, a non-destructive method, epi-illumination surface microscopy of the articular surfaces of long bones, is applied for the first time in 40 taxa of non-avian dinosaurs to determine cessation of endochondral growth. Thereby, the presence or absence of articular vascular channels between the endochondral bone and the cartilage is assessed. As articular vascular channels are the major source of nutrients for continued longitudinal growth, atrophy or loss of those channels would preclude continued growth of bone. We correlated our findings with published histological data and bone length measurements. We found articular vascular channels in all assessed dinosaur groups, but some individuals showed a loss of detectable articular vascular channels ��� what we interpret as evidence of longitudinal skeletal growth cessation. This observation contrasts with the hypothesis of continuous indeterminate growth in dinosaurs, at least for the taxa identified here, in which channels have been documented as closed or closing over. The new method introduced here provides a phylogenetic tool for definitively distinguishing new ���dwarf��� species from juveniles of known species. Furthermore, this study confirms the rarity of skeletally mature dinosaurs discovered to date and indicates that we have only begun to witness the full extent of dinosaur growth. Bruce M. Rothschild [spondylair@gmail.com], Carnegie Museum, 4400 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Florian Witzmann* [florian.witzmann@mfn.berlin], Museum f��r Naturkunde, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Invalidenstra��e 43, 10115 Berlin, Germany.

Over the last few decades, waterlogging stress has increasingly threatened global cotton production. Waterlogging results in reduced soil oxygen, impairing the growth and development of this valuable crop and often resulting in severe yield loss or crop failure. However, as cotton has an indeterminate growth habit, it is able to adapt to waterlogging stress by activating three mechanisms: the escape, quiescence, and self-regulating compensation mechanisms. The escape mechanism includes accelerated growth, formation of adventitious roots, and production of aerenchyma. The quiescence mechanism involves reduced biomass accumulation and energy dissipation via physiological, biochemical, and molecular events. The self-regulation compensation mechanism allows plants to exploit their indeterminate growth habit and compensatory growth ability by accelerating growth and development following relief from waterlogging stress. We review how the growth and development of cotton is impaired by waterlogging, focusing on the three strategies associated with tolerance and adaptation to the stress. We discuss agronomic measures and prospects for mitigating the adverse effects of waterlogging stress.

The trial was conducted at Dzindi irrigation scheme in Vhembe District in the Limpopo Province during the 2012 growing season. It was a 3x2 factorial experiment involving three plant populations (210 000, 150 000 and 70 000 plants ha-1) and two varieties of dry bean which are OPS-RS2 and Jenny with three replications. The results revealed that the interaction relationship between dry bean variety and plant population significantly influenced grain yield, 100 seed mass, number of seeds, plant height, chlorophyll content and dry matter production. The highest grain yield per plant was produced by Jenny with 70 000 plants ha-1. The highest grain yield was produced by OPS-RS2 with 150 000 plants ha-1 (3.8 tha-1) which was not significantly different to Jenny at 210 000 plants ha-1 and Jenny at 150 000 plants ha-1. A plant population of 150 000 plants ha-1 was suitable for both determinate and indeterminate growth type dry beans.

Post‐maturation growth leading to indeterminate growth patterns is widespread in nature. However, its adaptive value is unclear. Life history theory suggests this allocation strategy may be favored by temporal pulses in the intensity of mortality and/or the capacity to produce new tissues.Addressing the origin of indeterminate growth and the variability of growth patterns, we studied the growth of duck mussels, Anodonta anatina, a pan‐European unionid, in 18 Polish lakes. For each population, the sex, size, and age of collected mussels were measured to estimate Bertalanffy's growth curve parameters. We integrated information on A. anatina mortality rates, lake trophy, biofouling by zebra mussels, Dreissena polymorpha, and the prevalence of parasitic trematode larvae to identify selective conditions in lakes.We found two sources of mortality in A. anatina populations, pertaining to adverse effects of zebra mussel biofouling and trophy state on mussel survival. Additionally, populations with heavier biofouling presented a smaller abundance of parasites, indicative of a relationship between filtering intensity and contraction of water‐borne trematode larvae by filtering A. anatina.Consistently for each sex, populations with a greater trophy‐related mortality were characterized in A. anatina by a smaller asymptotic size Lmax, indicative of a life history response to mortality risk involving early maturation at a smaller body size. In all populations, females featured higher mortality and larger asymptotic size versus males.Our findings support a theoretical view that adaptive responses to selection involve adjustments in the lifetime resource allocation patterns. These adjustments should be considered drivers of the origin of indeterminate growth strategy in species taking parental care by offspring brooding in body cavities., We studied the growth of duck mussels, Anodonta anatina, a pan‐European unionid, in 18 Polish lakes representing different trophic conditions. We found two sources of mortality in A. anatina populations, pertaining to adverse effects of zebra mussel biofouling and trophy state on mussel survival. In all populations, females featured higher mortality and larger asymptotic size versus males, and consistently for each sex, populations with a greater trophy‐related mortality were characterized in A. anatina by a smaller asymptotic size, indicative of a life history response to mortality risk involving early maturation at a smaller body size. Our findings support a theoretical view that adaptive responses to selection involve adjustments in the lifetime resource allocation patterns.

A short stratigraphic interval near Bulin in western Hunan (China) yields multiple specimens of the ~514-Myr-old oryctocarine trilobite Oryctocarella duyunensis. Size data obtained from these specimens indicate that, from meraspid degree 1 onward, degrees represent successive instars. Meraspid growth persisted until a terminal stage was reached, providing the first example of determinate growth in trilobites and, notably, in an early Cambrian species. The sample contains three varieties of such terminal stages, recognized as holaspids, with 9, 10, or 11 thoracic segments, respectively. During the meraspid phase, growth rates were not constant in this species. The pattern of growth seen in the Bulin assemblage differs modestly from that reported in the same species from two other localities, attesting to microevolutionary variation in developmental patterns among these collections.

In India, horse gram [Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc.] is generally preferred as a contingent crop when the onset of rain is delayed or region-specific popular crops fail to establish due to early season drought. The uncertain and delayed rainfall very often forces farmers to plant horse gram beyond the recommended month of sowing (September). The productivity of horse gram significantly reduces with delayed sowing. Taking cues from other legumes, we hypothesized that genotypes with in-determinate growth habit perform better and are more stable than those with semi-determinate and determinate growth habits across delayed dates of sowing. To test this hypothesis, we assessed comparative grain yield potential based on best linear unbiased predictor and yield relative to environment maximum, and additive main effects and multiplicative interaction model-based stability of horse gram genotypes differing in growth habit across early (August), recommended (September) and delayed (October) dates of sowing. The genotypes with in-determinate and semi-determinate growth habits produced greater grain yield plant−1 when sown during early and recommended months, respectively. The genotypes, irrespective of their growth habit produced comparable grain yield plant−1 when sown during delayed month. However, across-dates of sowing, the average seed yield and stability of in-determinate genotypes were significantly better than semi-determinate and determinate genotypes. Based on YREM estimates, our study indicated that genotypes with semi-determinate growth habit should be preferred over those with other growth habits even for early or delayed sowing due to low grain yield penalty caused by crossover genotypes × dates of sowing interaction.

Plant growth and development, particularly the induction of flowering, are tightly controlled by key regulators in response to endogenous and environmental cues. The FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT)/TERMINAL FLOWER 1 (TFL1) family of phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein (PEBP) genes is central to plant development, especially the regulation of flowering time and plant architecture. FT, the long-sought florigen, promotes flowering and TFL1 represses flowering. The balance between FT and TFL1 modulates plant architecture by switching the meristem from indeterminate to determinate growth, or vice versa. Recent studies in a broad range of plant species demonstrated that, in addition to their roles in flowering time and plant architecture, FT/TFL1 family genes participate in diverse aspects of plant development, such as bamboo seed germination and potato tuber formation. In this review, we briefly summarize the evolution of the FT/TFL1 family and highlight recent findings on their conserved and divergent functions in different species.

The review summarizes the literature and the data of own research on the traits of the structure, functions, and protein metabolism in the skeletal muscle of teleost fish (Teleostei). Despite the conservative fundamental mechanisms of muscle growth (myogenesis) and degradation in vertebrates, fish are characterized by unique features related to their poikilothermy, indeterminate growth, and a unique role of the muscle as a depot of plastic and energetic substrates. The skeletal muscle of fish reveals high plasticity defined as their ability to substantial anabolic or catabolic changes in response to environmental variables, such as temperature, photoperiod, and food availability. Under optimal (anabolic) conditions, the muscle tissue of fish grows at an extremely high rate due to both hypertrophy and hyperplasia ways, while at the periods of high energy demand, including migration, starvation, and gonad maturation, the skeletal muscle protein catabolism temporarily prevails. However, the muscle degradation could be deep enough to exceed their regenerative capacity; according to this scenario, both genetically determined programs and responses to exogenous signals of excessive strength and duration can be realized. An extreme and illustrative example of muscle protein reserve mobilization and resulting amino acid consumption in the processes of energy production and the synthesis of stage-specific gonad proteins are pacific salmonids which exhaustion at the spawning is so great to result in the death of individuals. The myopathies in fish and the potential of fish objects for modeling human diseases are also considered.

The relationship between growth and sexual maturation is central to understanding the dynamics of animal populations which exhibit indeterminate growth. In sequential hermaphrodites, which undergo post-maturation sex change, the size and age at which sex change occurs directly affects reproductive output and hence population productivity. However, these traits are often labile, and may be strongly influenced by heterogenous growth and mortality rates. We analysed otolith microstructure of a protandrous (i.e., male-to-female) fish (barramundi Lates calcarifer) to examine growth in relation to individual variation in the timing of sex change. Growth trajectories of individuals with contrasting life histories were examined to elucidate the direction and extent to which growth rate influences the size and age individuals change sex. Then, the relationships between growth rate, maturation schedules and asymptotic maximum size were explored to identify potential trade-offs between age at female maturity and growth potential. Rapid growth was strongly associated with decreased age at sex change, but this was not accompanied by a decrease in size at sex change. Individuals that were caught as large females grew faster than those caught as males, suggesting that fast-growing individuals ultimately obtain higher fitness and therefore make a disproportionate contribution to population fecundity. These results indicate that individual-level variation in maturation schedules is not reflective of trade-offs between growth and reproduction. Rather, we suggest that conditions experienced during the juvenile phase are likely to be a key determinant of post-maturation fitness. These findings highlight the vulnerability of sex-changing species to future environmental change and harvest.

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an ancient oilseed crop with important agronomic, therapeutic, and industrial properties. However, in Morocco, the existing genetic diversity is quite limited. Thus, ...

India ranks first in terms of production and consumption of pulses. Pulses are good source of proteins required for human beings. The consumption of pulses are going to be increased, so there is need to increase the productivity of pulse crop production. To increase the productivity of pulses we have to identify the existing constraints that includes inherent physiological limitations viz., lower germination percentage, indeterminate growth habit, slower dry matter accumulation, decline in nodule activity, photosynthetic characteristics. These limitations are controlled by the application of plant growth regulators (PGR’s). Plant growth regulators are familiar to ameliorate the physiological efficiency as well as photosynthetic ability of plants. This paper reviews about application of plant growth regulators (PGR’s) to improve these limitations and to increase the yield of pulse crops.

Cotton is an important cash crop with an indeterminate growth characteristic. The labor costs of multiple management practices, including repeated foliar applications of mepiquat chloride (MC) and ...

O maracujazeiro possui crescimento contínuo e indeterminado, necessitando de condução para melhor distribuição dos ramos nas estruturas de sustentação. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a biometria e os parâmetros produtivos do maracujazeiro amarelo (Passiflora edulis Sims) enxertado em resposta a diferentes tipos de condução dos ramos secundários. O experimento foi instalado e conduzido no município de Pracinha, SP, no período de maio de 2016 a abril de 2017, utilizando-se o delineamento experimental em blocos ao acaso, com quatro tratamentos e seis repetições. Os tratamentos constituíram-se dos seguintes tipos de condução dos ramos secundários: T1 – poda do ramo principal conduzindo um ramo secundário lateral; T2 – poda do ramo principal conduzindo dois ramos secundários laterais; T3 – ramo principal dobrado conduzindo um ramo secundário lateral; T4 – ramo principal dobrado conduzindo dois ramos secundários laterais. Avaliaram-se o comprimento dos ramos secundários, o número de ramos terciários, o comprimento, diâmetro e massa dos frutos, o número de frutos por planta e a produtividade. Não houve diferenças significativas para número de ramos terciários, comprimento, diâmetro e massa de frutos. Verificou-se que o número de frutos por planta e a produtividade do maracujazeiro amarelo são influenciados pelo tipo de condução dos ramos secundários que não altera as características físicas dos frutos. Dobrar o ramo principal conduzindo dois ramos laterais favorecem o desenvolvimento e a produção do maracujazeiro-amarelo.

Evolutionary theories relating to aging predict that patterns of actuarial and reproductive senescence should be aligned, with a common onset of senescence set at the age of first reproduction. However, a few empirical studies reported asynchrony between actuarial and reproductive senescence. This asynchrony is expected to be particularly pronounced in organisms with indeterminate growth. Yet, this process is still poorly documented due to the lack of long-term demographic data on known-aged individuals. We investigated the asynchrony of actuarial and reproductive senescence in the European whip snake, Hierophis viridiflavus, an oviparous colubrid with indeterminate growth. Using demographic data collected over a 29-year period, we showed that females did not experience any fecundity loss late in life. In contrast, they suffered from an early, severe actuarial senescence. Our findings thus revealed a pronounced asynchrony in actuarial and reproductive senescence processes, a phenomenon that could be widespread across the tree of life.

The cultivation of hybrid tomatoes, intended for fresh consumption, with a determined growth habit, and without support, is an alternative that has a lower production cost. The research aimed to evaluate the productivity and economic viability of different tomato genotypes, with a determinate and indeterminate growth habit. The experimental design was in completely randomized blocks. Ten hybrids and a variety were grown in 2016, and nine hybrids, and a variety in 2018, with a spacing of 0.5 meters between plants. Harvests were carried out in four periods in 2016, at 72, 82, 97, and 105 days after transplanting (DAT); and in 2018 at 81, 87, 97, and 111 DAT. After harvesting, the gross value of production and profit were quantified. The hybrids that obtained the highest production per plant in 2016 were Gabrielle (6,010 kg), with support; Thaise (5.529 kg); and N901 (5.003 kg). In 2018, Dominador and Thaise hybrids had the highest production, with 4.109 and 3.961 kg per plant, respectively. The gross value of tomato production in 2016 was higher than in 2018 for all hybrids and variety, except for Dominador hybrid. Hybrids with a determined growth habit and conducted without support are a profitable alternative to produce tomatoes intended for fresh consumption, especially the hybrid Gabrielle, which had the highest production. The economic viability of hybrids grown without support is superior to all hybrids with support.

Summary Cytokinin group of phytohormones regulate root elongation and branching during post‐embryonic development. Cytokinin‐degrading enzymes cytokinin oxidases/dehydrogenases (CKXs) have been deployed to investigate biological activities of cytokinin and to engineer root growth. We expressed chickpea cytokinin oxidase 6 (CaCKX6) under the control of a chickpea root‐specific promoter of CaWRKY31 in Arabidopsis thaliana and chickpea having determinate and indeterminate growth patterns, respectively, to study the effect of cytokinin depletion on root growth and drought tolerance. Root‐specific expression of CaCKX6 led to a significant increase in lateral root number and root biomass in Arabidopsis and chickpea without any penalty to vegetative and reproductive growth of shoot. Transgenic chickpea lines showed increased CKX activity in root. Soil‐grown advanced chickpea transgenic lines exhibited higher root‐to‐shoot biomass ratio and enhanced long‐term drought tolerance. These chickpea lines were not compromised in root nodulation and nitrogen fixation. The seed yield in some lines was up to 25% higher with no penalty in protein content. Transgenic chickpea seeds possessed higher levels of zinc, iron, potassium and copper. Our results demonstrated the potential of cytokinin level manipulation in increasing lateral root number and root biomass for agronomic trait improvement in an edible legume crop with indeterminate growth habit.

The production of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) for fresh consumption must overcome a challenge: the high production cost. The use of cultivars with determinate growth habit is an alternative to reduce costs. Thus, the objective this work was to evaluate the acceptability of tomato fruits from cultivars with determinate growth habit for fresh consumption. Seeds of 10 hybrids and one variety were grown in open field, arranged in six randomized block design, and tested for sensorial acceptability. The analyses were carried out using 50 not-trained consumers, considering their visual and sensorial preferences by affective methods and purchase intention. The hybrid Thaise grown with and without staking and the hybrid Gabrielle grown with staking had higher visual preference by the consumers, with frequency of 24%, 18%, and 22%, respectively, in the first position; and the hybrid Dominador showed higher frequency (18%) in the second and third positions; these hybrids had purchase intention above 80%. All hybrids and varieties had significant difference in the mean test at p

In animals with indeterminate growth, such as predatory fishes, mouth size is related to, and increases with, body mass of the organism. As fishes grow in body size, they can consume larger...

Common Bean (Phaseolusvulgaris L) is one of the main food sources in Brazil, hás cultural and nutricional values. Its cultivation can be found mosthy by small producers with small production áreas and some technological types, and extends throughout the national territory. The objective of this research was to elaborate a review about the edaphoclimatic adaptability and agricultural production environments of the bean crop. Since, beans can be sown at three times of the year, in which edaphoclimatic characteristics are defined as: 1 st crop (Sowing performed between August and October); 2nd crop (Sowing performed from January to April); and autumn crop winter crop, in which sowing occurs from May and, characterized as annual crop. In the 3rd harvest the use of irrigatin system, made by sprinkler system. However, sowing in different harvest may be influenced by the type of culivar used, as it hás Type I characterization because it hás a determined growth habit with reproductive terminal buds in the main stem and branches, while the second (types II, III and IV) have indeterminate growth habit with vegetative terminal buds on the main stem and branches. However there is a difference between the three types in the plant, the type III prostrate sinze and type IV plant that hás large climbing capacity. Although it demonstrates these attributes, the bean also hás during its biological cycle the vegetative and reproductive phases, which are divided into tem stages. The vegetative phase (V) consists of stages V0, V1, V2, V3 and V4 and the reproductive phase (R), of stages R5, R6, R 7, R8 and R9 being crucial for the development of the crop. Despite these stages of bean development, it hás wide adaptation and geographical distribuion, the bean is very little tolerant to extreme environmental factors, being a relatively demanding crop with reagard to most edaphoclimatic conditions. Thus, the agroclimatic characteristics of the region and the requirements and limitations of common bean are of fundamental importance for the choice of an environment where the crop can grow and develop well, in order to obtain optimum yield, taking full advantage of the cultivar. and other practices or technologies employed in order to provide positive effects on the crop.Common Bean (Phaseolusvulgaris L) is one of the main food sources in Brazil, hás cultural and nutricional values. Its cultivation can be found mosthy by small producers with small production áreas and some technological types, and extends throughout the national territory. The objective of this research was to elaborate a review about the edaphoclimatic adaptability and agricultural production environments of the bean crop. Since, beans can be sown at three times of the year, in which edaphoclimatic characteristics are defined as: 1 st crop (Sowing performed between August and October); 2nd crop (Sowing performed from January to April); and autumn crop winter crop, in which sowing occurs from May and, characterized as annual crop. In the 3rd harvest the use of irrigatin system, made by sprinkler system. However, sowing in different harvest may be influenced by the type of culivar used, as it hás Type I characterization because it hás a determined growth habit with reproductive terminal buds in the main stem and branches, while the second (types II, III and IV) have indeterminate growth habit with vegetative terminal buds on the main stem and branches. However there is a difference between the three types in the plant, the type III prostrate sinze and type IV plant that hás large climbing capacity. Although it demonstrates these attributes, the bean also hás during its biological cycle the vegetative and reproductive phases, which are divided into tem stages. The vegetative phase (V) consists of stages V0, V1, V2, V3 and V4 and the reproductive phase (R), of stages R5, R6, R 7, R8 and R9 being crucial for the development of the crop. Despite these stages of bean development, it hás wide adaptation and geographical distribuion, the bean is very little tolerant to extreme environmental factors, being a relatively demanding crop with reagard to most edaphoclimatic conditions. Thus, the agroclimatic characteristics of the region and the requirements and limitations of common bean are of fundamental importance for the choice of an environment where the crop can grow and develop well, in order to obtain optimum yield, taking full advantage of the cultivar. and other practices or technologies employed in order to provide positive effects on the crop.

BSA-seq combined with whole-genome resequencing map-based cloning delimited the cucumber det-novel locus into a 44.5 kb region in chromosome 6 harboring a putative candidate gene encoding a phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein (CsCEN). Determinate and indeterminate growth habits of cucumber can affect plant architecture and crop yield. The TERMINAL FLOWER 1 (TFL1) controls determinate/indeterminate growth in Arabidopsis. In this study, a novel mutation in cucumber TFL1 homolog (CsCEN) has shown to regulate determinate growth and product of terminal flowers in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), which is similar to the function of CsTFL1 as previously reported. Genetic analysis in two determinate genotypes (D226 and D082) and indeterminate genotype (CCMC) revealed that a single recessive gene is responsible for this determinate growth trait. With the combination of BSA-seq and whole-genome resequencing, the locus of determinate-novel (det-novel) trait was mapped to a 44.5 kb genomic region in chromosome 6. Sequence alignment identified one non-synonymous SNP mutation (A to T) in the third exon of CsCEN, resulting in an amino acid substitution (Thr to Pro), suggesting that determinate growth might be controlled by a novel gene CsCEN (Csa6G152360) which differed from the reported CsTFL1 gene. The CsCEN expression level in shoot apexes and axillary buds was significantly lower in D226 compared to CCMC, suggesting its essential role in sustaining indeterminate growth habit. Identification and characterization of the CsCEN in the present study provide a new insight into plant architecture modification and development of cucumber cultivars suited to mechanized production system.

Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) is a damaging pest of many crops including soybean, Glycine max (L.), especially in the southern United States. Previous studies have concluded that oviposition and development of H. zea larvae mirror the phenology of soybean, with oviposition occurring during full bloom, younger larvae developing on blooms and leaves, intermediate aged larvae developing on varying tissue types, and older larvae developing on flowers and pods. In a field trial, we investigated the presence of natural infestations of H. zea larvae by instar in determinate and indeterminate soybean varieties. In complementary experiments, we artificially infested H. zea and allowed them to oviposit on plants within replicated cages (one with a determinate variety and two with an indeterminate variety). Plants were sampled weekly during the time larvae were present. In the natural infestation experiment, most larvae were found on blooms during R3 and were early to middle instars; by R4, most larvae were found on leaves and were middle to late instars. In contrast, in the cage study, most larvae were found on leaves regardless of soybean growth stage or larval stage. Determinate and indeterminate growth habit did not impact larval preference for different soybean tissue types. Our studies suggest H. zea larvae prefer specific tissue types, but also provide evidence that experimental design can influence the results. Finally, our finding of larval preference for leaves contrasts with findings from previous studies.

Indeterminate growth of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) creates indecision for best digging date for maturity and economic return. The current standard to determine peanut maturity is the Hull Scrape method. This method uses human observations to place hull scraped peanuts on a color maturity profile board. Human observations may lack precision and repeatability from individual to individual. X-ray technology has the capability of viewing peanut kernels through the hull to possibly ascertain density and maturity. The objective was to determine if x-ray could be used as a quick, non-destructive, and repeatable method to determine peanut maturity of runner, spanish, and virginia market types. Fresh dug peanut pods had 25 percent greater peanut area and gray scale values compared with hull scraped pods (runner and virginia only) and showed no difference in x-ray value between immature and fully mature peanut. Dried peanut showed a linear response of x-ray value versus peanut maturity (hull color). Virginia market type had much higher x-ray values followed by runners, then spanish. The relationship between peanut maturity and x-ray value peaked at the Orange class for runners (Georgia-06G, Georgia-13M), and Spanish (AT9899) while virginia (Georgia-11J) tended to peak at the Brown class. This research demonstrated that x-ray technology may be used to measure peanut density and possible maturity but needs further examination past Orange and Brown maturity class. Final x-ray values determined by this proprietary x-ray equipment may not be transferable due to specific x-ray power, detector precision, background color/scatter, and other electronic nuances.

This review is devoted to the analysis of molecular genetic mechanisms of controlling the type of growth habit of grain legumes (pea, soybean, common bean, vigna); it provides information about known homologous genes TFL1 , LFY , AP1 , FUL , FT , and FD . Significant changes in plant architecture were during domestication of grain legumes. Many wild relatives of legumes are characterized by an indeterminate growth habit type, cultivated plants are characterized by indeterminate and determinate types. In plants with a determinate growth habit type, terminal inflorescence is formed at transition from the vegetative phase to the reproductive phase. These plants are characterized by a complex of features: simultaneous maturation of beans, resistance to lodging, etc. In indeterminate type of growth habit, the apical shoot meristem remains active during plant life. The main genes responsible for the plant transition to flowering are the homologs of the Arabidopsis genes LFY , TFL1 , AP1 . TFL1 gene is responsible for maintenance of growth of the shoot apical meristem; its homologs were identified in pea ( PsTFL1a ), soybean ( Dt1/GmTFL1 ), common bean ( PvTFL1y ), cowpea ( VuTFL1 ). The identification and characterization of the genes responsible for the type of stem growth habit are necessary for the successful selection of modern varieties suitable for mechanized cultivation. Design of molecular markers that diagnose this important breeding trait at early plant development stages, will help to determine the type of stem growth habit.

Comparison of common buckwheat varieties with determinate vs. indeterminate growth habit reveals no differences in leaf photosynthesis rate at stage before flowering. However, at stage of seed filling the difference was significant. Maximal difference was 20 days after early flowering, i.e in period of most intensive seed formation. These results show that determinate varieties have higher sink strength providing by developing seeds. It is correlated with higher yield ability of such varieties. Probably, growth limitation resulting from det-mutation leads to some shifts in system of sink priorities of buckwheat plant and allows initiate the development of additional seeds. One more possible cause of alteration of the physiological parameters in determinate varieties is some optimization of plant structure: in terms of physiology the determinate buckwheat is a plant which is more similar to cereals than indeterminate buckwheat. However, underlying physiological changes accompanying the transition from indeterminate toward determinate growth in buckwheat remain almost unknown. Assumption about strong effect of det-mutation per se on photosynthesis rate was not supported in our work. Alternative assumption about accumulation of additional genes enhancing the sink ability suggests opportunities for additional progress in the selection work using tools evaluating photosynthesis intensity at stage of grain filling.

A new study in Citrus reveals how CENTRORADIALIS prevents axillary buds from terminating as thorns by directly inhibiting THORN IDENTITY1, thereby maintaining coexisting states of determinate and indeterminate growth at vegetative nodes.

Background The determinate growth habits is beneficial for plant architecture modification and the development of crops cultivars suited to mechanized production systems. Which play an important role in the genetic improvement of crops. In Brassica napus, a determinate inflorescence strain (4769) has been discovered among doubled haploid (DH) lines obtained from a spring B. napus × winter B. napus cross, but there are few reports on it. We fine mapped a determinate inflorescence locus, and evaluated the effect of the determinate growth habit on agronomic traits. Results In this study, we assessed the effect of the determinate growth habit on agronomic traits. The results showed that determinacy is beneficial for reducing plant height and flowering time, advancing maturity, enhancing lodging resistance, increasing plant branches and maintaining productivity. Genetic analysis in the determinate (4769) and indeterminate (2982) genotypes revealed that two independently inherited recessive genes (Bnsdt1, Bnsdt2) are responsible for this determinate growth trait. Bnsdt2 was subsequently mapped in BC2 and BC3 populations derived from the combination 2982 × 4769. Bnsdt2 could be delimited to an approximately 122.9 kb region between 68,586.2 kb and 68,709.1 kb on C09. BLAST analysis of these candidate intervals showed that chrC09g006434 (BnaC09.TFL1) is homologous to TFL1 of A. thaliana. Sequence analysis of two alleles identified two non-synonymous SNPs (T136C, G141C) in the first exon of BnaC09.TFL1, resulting in two amino acid substitutions (Phe46Leu, Leu47Phe). Subsequently, qRT-PCR revealed that BnaC09.TFL1 expression in shoot apexes was significantly higher in NIL-4769 than in 4769, suggesting its essential role in sustaining the indeterminate growth habit. Conclusions In this study, the novel locus Bnsdt2, a recessive genes for determinate inflorescence in B. napus, was fine-mapped to a 68,586.2 kb - 68,709.1 kb interval on C09. The annotated genes chrC09g006434 (BnaC09.TFL1) that may be responsible for inflorescence traits were found.

Senescence, or the deterioration of functionality with age, varies widely across taxa in pattern and rate. Insights into why and how this variation occurs are hindered by the predominance of lab-focused research on short-lived model species with determinate growth. We synthesize evolutionary theories of senescence, highlight key information gaps, and clarify predictions for species with low mortality and variable degrees of indeterminate growth. Lake trout are an ideal species to evaluate predictions in the wild. We monitored individual males from two populations (1976-2017) longitudinally for changes in adult mortality (actuarial senescence) and body condition (proxy for energy balance). A cross-sectional approach (2017) compared young (ages 4-10 years) and old (18-37 years) adults for (1) phenotypic performance in body condition, and semen quality - which is related to fertility under sperm competition (reproductive senescence), and (2) relative telomere length (potential proxy for cellular senescence). Adult growth in these particular populations is constrained by a simplified food web, and our data support predictions of negligible senescence when maximum size is only slightly larger than maturation size. Negative senescence (aka reverse senescence) may occur in other lake trout populations where diet shifts allow maximum sizes to be much larger than maturation size.

International audience; White lupin produces cluster roots in response to phosphorus deficiency. Along the cluster root, numerous short rootlets successively appear, creating a spatial and temporal gradient of developmental stages that constitutes a powerful biological model to study the dynamics of the structural and functional evolution of these organs. The present study proposes a fine histochemical, transcriptomic and functional analysis of the rootlet development from its emergence to its final length. Between these two stages, the tissue structures of the rootlets were observed, the course of transcript expressions for the genes differentially expressed was monitored and some physiological events linked to Pi nutrition were followed. A switch between (i) a growing phase, in which a normal apical meristem is present and (ii) a specialized phase for nutrition, in which the rootlet is completely differentiated, was highlighted. In the final stage of its determinate growth, the rootlet is an organ with a very active metabolism, especially for the solubilization and absorption of several nutrients. This work discusses how the transition between a growing to a determinate state in response to nutritional stresses is found in other species and underlines the fundamental dilemma of roots between soil exploration and soil exploitation.

Relationships between the complexity of the cranial sutures and the inferred ecology of dicynodont synapsids are explored. Simple complexity indices based on degree of sutural interdigitation were calculated for 70 anomodont species and indicate that the naso-frontal sutures of Cistecephalidae, a clade inferred to be dedicated fossors based on aspects of postcranial morphology, are substantially more complex than those of other dicynodonts. The elevated complexity of the naso-frontal suture in this clade is interpreted as being related to compressive forces sustained during burrowing, paralleling the condition in some other fossorial vertebrate groups (e.g., amphisbaenians). The most highly interdigitated sutures in the cistecephalid skull are those oriented transversely to its long axis, which would experience the greatest longitudinal stresses from contact with the substrate. Although it is uncertain to what degree cistecephalid burrowing was based on scratch vs. head-lift digging, it is argued that the head played an important role during locomotion in this group. Increased sutural complexity, rather than cranial fusion, as an adaptation to resisting compressive forces during burrowing may be related to indeterminate growth in dicynodonts.

In freshwater temperate environments, waterbodies warmed by power plants can serve as a stepping stone in the spread of tropical and subtropical species. This offers a unique opportunity to acquire an insight into the life history of organisms undergoing range expansions beyond their native habitat. Here, we studied the patterns of offspring production and growth in the Asian mussel Sinanodonta woodiana inhabiting the thermal plume of the Odra River in Central Europe. Compared to the S. woodiana males, females had more convex shells and had a greater tendency to continue post-maturation growth and thus follow an indeterminate growth pattern. Gravid females were observed all-year round, and individuals with either large or more convex shells brooded more offspring. The proportion of incubating females, brood size and glochidia size were linked to gonadal activity and changed seasonally. Females with a higher amount of nutritive substances in the ovaries produced more and larger offspring. The smallest and the largest offspring occurred in the summer and in the winter, respectively. Sinanodonta woodiana incubated different offspring generations simultaneously, constantly releasing them into the environment. Using a life history evolution perspective, we discuss our results in view of allocation trade-offs between growth and offspring production.

High yields of seeds, green pods and green biomass is the main goal of soybean breeding in many countries. An assessment of relationships between the productivity traits and their effect on the yield may be useful in developing effective crop cultivation programs. In soybean, the stem growth habit and the branching character are interrelated with plant productivity and in most cases determine it. Therefore, the aim of the present work was to study the variability of the level (strength) and the structure of correlations between 92 morphological, phenological, biochemical, agronomic traits of soybean accessions with different growth habits, and branching characters in different weather conditions. 270 soybean accessions of different ecological and geographical origin from the VIR collection have been grown in the Krasnodar region within 3 years. Field studies of the traits and biochemical analysis were carried out according to VIR guidelines. The variability of correlation matrices as regards the strength and structure of relationships was analyzed using the correlation and factor analysis (the principal component method), as well as the method developed by N.S. Rostova. A comparison of the level (R2, coefficient of determination) and structure of correlations in different years has shown that the deterioration of external conditions is followed by an increase in the strength of relationships (R2) between the traits and in the difference between correlation matrices’ structure. Soybean adaptation to the changing conditions occurs due to the rearrangements of relationship systems, whereas the degree and direction of these changes are determined by the growing conditions and specificity of the accessions response. Under favorable conditions, the structure of correlations in soybeans with different growth habits, and branching characters has more similarity than in the conditions critical for development. The highest level of relationships (R2) between the traits was observed in the year that was unfavorable for the growth of the semi-cultivated accessions (with the indeterminate growth habit and a large number of branches of the 1st and 2nd order). The green biomass productivity of accessions with the determinate growth habit and more than two branches is most strongly associated with the branch weight, while in accessions with the indeterminate growth habit and with (or without) 1–2 branches it depends on the growing season duration, one leaf weight and the number of leaves per plant. In the semi-cultivated accessions (with the indeterminate growth habit and numerous branches of the 1st and 2nd order), it correlates, besides the listed traits, with the number of nodes, the internode length, the main stem diameter, the weight of leaves, seed morphometric parameters and their quality.

The midget octopus Octopus huttoni is an important link between trophic levels as a food source and a predator, but little is known about its life history or growth. This is the first study to age and quantify growth in O. huttoni from three populations in Southern New Zealand, namely Foveaux Strait, Otago Harbour, and the Otago continental shelf. Morphometries were measured for 121 individuals, ages were estimated for 109 individuals using beak and stylet increment analysis, and lipofuscin quantity was analysed for 106 individuals. Assuming that one increment equals 1 day, beaks provided the highest age estimate (up to 250 days), but are suspected to be an underestimate (40–70 days) because increments were not found on laboratory-reared paralarval beaks, suggesting that the first increment may form after settlement. Daily growth rings in stylets were validated by tetracycline marking, but low estimates of age were attributed to poor visualisation of the stylet nucleus. The relationships between lipofuscin volume ratio and age or size of the individual were not significant, lipofuscin density was low, and individual variation was high. Results indicated that this species displays indeterminate growth until death, with a maximum mantle length of 50–60 mm at an age of 200–250 days. Further, individuals from Foveaux Strait were smaller and younger than those found in the Otago Harbour, supporting an hypothesis of an ontogenetic migration onshore.

The objective of this research work was to characterize sesame germplasmto generate information on different traits carried by each accessionand to identify novel morphotypes with morphological descriptors desirable for designing model plant architecture. A total of ninety germplasm lines were raised in a randomized block design with three replications and characterized for ninequalitative and thirteen quantitative morphological descriptors. A great variation was observed among sesame germplasm lines for 19 morphologic and agronomic traits while three characters were found to be monomorphic as the plants with indeterminate growth habit, white flower colourand shattering nature. The mean of different qualitative morphotypes for yield and its attributing traits suggested that branched plants forming opposite leaf arrangement and having hairy and tetra carpellated multi capsules per leaf axil with seeds of white colour would be desiredmodel plant architecture in sesame. Similarly, morphological framework of accessions giving the highest and lowest yield as well as pattern of seed yield with high and low level of expression of yield components indicated that higher seed yield per plant, capsules per plant, oil content, harvest index, primary branches per plant and early maturity were desired in model plant. Also noted that, increase in harvest index to the extent of 50 per cent is possible and yield can be increased by improving source-sink balance. These results have an important implication for sesame germplasm characterization and designing model plant architecture.

Hot pepper crops are characterized by having indeterminate growth, continuous flowering and consequently fruits at different stages of maturation. As a result, it becomes difficult to determine the optimal time for harvest, which is an aspect that should be considered in order to obtain high physiological seed quality. In general, physiological seed quality of hot pepper is erratic and shows low germination and vigor. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiological quality of hot pepper seeds obtained from fruits harvested at different stages of maturation under tropical conditions. The experiment was held at Embrapa Vegetables in Brasilia, DF, Brazil, during spring. Seeds of hot pepper cultivar 'BRS Mari' from the Embrapa Vegetables breeding program were extracted from fruits at different maturation stages (20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 days after anthesis - DAA). Seed extraction and conditioning were done manually. Seed quality was evaluated by the following tests: seed moisture content, germination, first count, seedling emergence in greenhouse conditions, and accelerated ageing with the use of saturated NaCl solution for 72 h. Seed moisture content (SMC) ranged from 89% at 20 DAA to 39% at 80 DAA. The maximum physiological quality was observed in seeds obtained from fruits harvested at 70 DAA. At this time, SMC was 39%, and seed germination and seedling emergence reached 70 and 72%, respectively. Seed germination and vigor decreased at 80 DAA.

The transit from indeterminate to determinate root developmental program compromises growth and causes the differentiation of the meristem, but a direct link between this process with auxin signaling and/or viability of initial cells remains untested. Here, through the isolation and characterization of the halted primary root1 (hpr1) mutant of Arabidopsis, which develops primary and lateral roots with genetically stable determinate growth after germination, we show that the differentiation of the root meristem correlates with enhanced auxin responsiveness and is preceded by the death of provasculature initial cells in both primary and lateral roots. Supplementation of indole-3-acetic acid causes both a dose-dependent repression of primary root growth and an induction of DR5:uidA expression in wild-type seedlings, and these effects were exacerbated in hpr1 mutants. The damage of provasculature initial cells in the root of hpr1 mutants occurred at earlier times than the full differentiation of the meristem, and correlates with a reduced expression domain of CycB1:uidA and PRZ:uidA. Thus, HPR1 plays critical functions for stem cell maintenance, auxin homeostasis, cell division in the meristem, and indeterminate root growth.

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] cultivar ‘Chookdu 1’ (registration number: No. 7159) and ‘Chookdu 2’ (registration number: No. 6758) were developed as forage soybean cultivars at Kyungpook National University, Republic of Korea. They were grown in tests over three years and compared with a commercial seed cultivar for seed yield and forage productivity planted in the same row in mixed plantings with corn. Chookdu 1 and Chookdu 2 are tall, indeterminate growth habit selections from a cross between wild soybean (Glycine soja Sieb. & Zucc.), ‘PI 483463’, and cultivated soybean, ‘Hutcheson’ (PI 518664). The plant height of Chookdu 1 and Chookdu 2 were 80.9 cm and 81.4 cm, respectively, compared to 54.7 cm for the ‘Pungsannamul’ commercial seed check. The three-year seed yield of Chookdu 1 and Chookdu 2 was 2.0 and 2.2 t/ha, respectively, and not significantly different from Pungsannamul at 2.4 t/ha. Of the two cultivars Chookdu 2 averaged the most total forage fresh weight (65.0 t/ha). The three year mean forage yield of mixed-planting of corn and Chookdu 2 and Chookdu 1 was 10.4% and 3.8% greater, respectively, than corn monoculture. Results show Chookdu 1 and Chookdu 2 are suitable soybean cultivars for mixed planting in the same row with corn to improve forage yield. They should be useful as parents to use in breeding to develop forage-type soybeans of high quality and yield for use in livestock feed.

Senescence is progressive, age-related bodily deterioration, accompanied at the population level by declines in average survival and fecundity (i.e., ‘demographic senescence’). Demographic senescence of plants has been investigated in only a few species, including small, floating macrophytes in the genus Lemna (family Araceae, subfamily Lemnoideae – the ‘duckweeds’). Unlike most plant species, Lemna ramets exhibit determinate growth, potentially rendering them more likely to experience demographic senescence. Here, our objective was to investigate senescence in a Lemna species not previously studied in this context, L. gibba L., toward the long-term goal of conducting cross-species comparative analyses. In a longitudinal lab study, we investigated a cohort of 334 individual L. gibba fronds, whose survival and reproduction we followed daily from birth (defined by the date a focal frond detached from its parent) to death (defined by the date a focal frond’s last daughter detached). We fit survival data to exponential, Weibull, Gompertz, and logistic models, the first of which represents ‘no senescence’. The logistic model was found to have the greatest support (AICC weight >0.99), indicating strong age-related declines in survival. We fit reproduction data using a generalized estimating equation approach, which showed a significant age-related decline in the predicted probability of daily reproduction – from 0.61 at age 3 days to 0.23 at age 52 days (i.e., after excluding the first two days of reproduction data to account for the initial, pre-reproductive phase of the L. gibba lifecycle). These age-related declines provide strong evidence that L. gibba does exhibit demographic senescence, consistent with evidence from congeneric species.