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The properties of Cu-0.2 wt%Zr-0.15 wt%Y alloy aged at 400 °C, 450 °C, 500 °C, 550 °C for 0 h, 0.25 h, 0.5 h, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h and 6 h after 0%, 20%, 40%, 60% cold rolling were investigated systematically by the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) in this study. The hardness and electrical conductivity were measured under different conditions. The optimum ageing process for the alloy was determined. After solution treated at 900 °C for 1 h, the studied alloy with 60% cold rolling can obtain the best properties after aging treatment at 450 °C for 1 h. It means the conductivity can reach to 90.6 %IACS and the hardness reach to 145.0 HV. The ageing hardening behavior was also analyzed according to the transmission microstructures. A large amount of Cu10Zr7 precipitates were identified by TEM analysis in the copper matrix. The phase transformation kinetics equations for Cu-0.2 wt%Zr-0.15 wt%Y alloy was established under different aging temperature after 60% cold rolling. The kinetics curves of aging precipitation and isothermal transformation were obtained. In addition, the small addition of Y can promote the precipitation of the second phase.

Stellite 6 alloy coatings were produced by the plasma arc cladding process, and the as-cladded samples were treated with isothermal aging at 700 °C for up to 1000 hours to evaluate the effect of long-term isothermal aging on microstructural evolution. The results show that the microstructure of the cladding consists of γ-Co solid solution and carbide-based eutectics. During aging, γ-Co gradually transformed to e-Co, and the volume fraction of e-Co reached to about 75 pct as the aging time was 1000 hours. On other hand, the M23C6 fine particles were found to gradually precipitate in the solid solution during aging. Approximately pairwise proportional relationships were found among the fraction of precipitated M23C6 carbides, the volume fraction of martensite transformation, and the stacking fault energy, and they were verified by the statistical results of phase fraction and change of SF possibility calculated through X-ray diffraction patterns. A kinetic model for martensite transformation was also established to explain the change of martensite volume fraction during the aging period and to predict the transformation degree during high-temperature aging.

Isothermal transformation characteristics of a medium carbon Ti-V microalloyed steel were investigated using light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and by uniaxial compressive testing. Samples austenitized on 1100 degrees C were isothermally treated in the range from 350 to 600 degrees C and subsequently water quenched. The final microstructure of the samples held at 350 degrees C consisted of bainitic sheaves and had compressive yield strength, approximately from 1000 MPa, which is attributed to high dislocation density of low bainite. At 400 and 450 degrees C, acicular ferrite became prevalent in the microstructure. It was also formed by a displacive mechanism, but the dislocation density was lower, leading to a decrease of compressive yield strength to approximately 700 MPa. The microstructure after the heat treatment at 500 degrees C consisted of coarse non-polygonal ferrite grains separated by pearlite colonies, principally dislocation free grains, so that the compressive YS reached a minimum value of about 700 MPa. The microstructure of the samples heat-treated at 550 and 600 degrees C consisted of pearlite and both grain boundary and intragranular ferrite, alongside with some martensite. After 600 s, austenite became stable and transformed to martensite after water quenching. Therefore, the presence of martensite increased the compressive YS to approx. 800 MPa.

Ultra-fine carbide-free bainitic (UCFB) steel, also known as nano-bainite (NB) steel, is composed of bainitic ferrite laths with nanoscale thickness and carbon-rich film-like retained austenite located between laths. The bainite transformation kinetic model can accurately describe the bainite transformation kinetics in conventional austempering (CA) processes based on the shear mechanism combined with the dilatometer test. UCFB steels with medium and high carbon composition are designed in this work to systematically study the transformation kinetics of bainite, and the evolution of its microstructure and properties, and reveal the influence of heat treatment processes on the microstructure and properties the UCFB steels. The results show that the activation energy for BF nucleation decreases during the CA process and isothermal transformation temperature decreases. The bainite transformation is first nucleated at the grain boundaries, and then nucleated at the newly formed bainitic ferrite/austenite interface.

Gas-induced geodynamic phenomena can occur during underground mining operations if the porous structure of the rock is filled with gas at high pressure. In such cases, the original compact rock structure disintegrates into grains of small dimensions, which are then transported along the mine working space. Such geodynamic events, particularly outbursts of gas and rock, pose a danger both to the life of miners and to the functioning of the mine infrastructure. These incidents are rare in copper ore mining, but they have recently begun to occur, and have not yet been fully investigated. To ensure the safety of mining operations, it is necessary to determine parameters of the rock–gas system for which the energy of the gas will be smaller than the work required to disintegrate and transport the rock. Such a comparison is referred to as an energy balance and serves as a starting point for all engineering analyses. During mining operations, the equilibrium of the rock–gas system is disturbed, and the rapid destruction of the rock is initiated together with sudden decompression of the gas contained in its porous structure. The disintegrated rock is then transported along the mine working space in a stream of released gas. Estimation of the energy of the gas requires investigation of the type of thermodynamic transformation involved in the process. In this case, adiabatic transformation would mean that the gas, cooled in the course of decompression, remains at a temperature significantly lower than that of the surrounding rocks throughout the process. However, if we assume that the transformation is isothermal, then the cooled gas will heat up to the original temperature of the rock in a very short time (&lt, 1 s). Because the quantity of energy in the case of isothermal transformation is almost three times as high as in the adiabatic case, obtaining the correct energy balance for gas-induced geodynamic phenomena requires detailed analysis of this question. For this purpose, a unique experimental study was carried out to determine the time required for heat exchange in conditions of very rapid flows of gas around rock grains of different sizes. Numerical simulations reproducing the experiments were also designed. The results of the experiment and the simulation were in good agreement, indicating a very fast rate of heat exchange. Taking account of the parameters of the experiment, the thermodynamic transformation may be considered to be close to isothermal.

Further development of high chromium cast irons (HCCI) is based on tailoring the microstructure, necessitating an accurate control over the phase transformation and carbide precipitation temperatures and can be achieved by thermal treatments (TT). To understand the underlying mechanisms controlling the transformation kinetics during the different stages of the TT, it is imperative to adjust the TT parameters to have information of the transformations occurring during non-thermal and isothermal heating cycles, since proper selection of the TT parameters ensures the optimum use of the alloying elements. In this work, the boundaries of the phase transformations for a HCCI containing 26 wt pct Cr for different cooling rates (continuous cooling transformation, CCT, diagram) were established by applying dilatometric measurements. Based on the CCT diagram, a temperature-time-transformation (TTT) diagram was constructed by isothermally holding the samples until complete phase transformation. For determining the initiation and finishing of the transformation, the lever rule assisted by derivatives was applied. The phases present after transformation were determined by combining X-ray diffraction (XRD) and metallographic characterization using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Finally, the data obtained from the dilatometer was experimentally verified by isothermally heat treating some samples using laboratory furnaces. The transformed phase fraction from OM and SEM images was then correlated to the fraction obtained from the TTT diagram.

The phase composition of nanobainitic steel 0.56–0.60%C, 1.68–1.95%Mn, 1.58–1.80%Si, 1.30–1.47%Cr, 0.57–0.75%Mo is described in this paper. The phase composition is controlled in order to obtain diversified mechanical properties for specific applications, such as armor plates. The effect of temperature and time of isothermal heat treatment on both the microstructure and the mechanical properties of the steel were determined. Dilatometric studies, as well as measurements of volume fraction and size distribution of retained austenite were carried out. Analysis of the kinetics of isothermal transformation in the temperature range of 200–225 °C for times of up to 144 h were also carried out, and the parameters of the production process of the steel were determined. A microstructure consisting of nanolathy carbideless bainite and blocky and lathy retained austenite, providing tensile strength of at least 2000 MPa, yield strength of at least 1300 MPa, and total elongation of at least 10% has been found.

The Si addition has a great impact on the glass forming ability of Cu50Zr43Al7 bulk metallic glass (BMG). To investigate the effective role of Si doping on the crystallization behavior of the BMGs, crystallization transformation kinetics of Cu50Zr43Al7 and (Cu50Zr43Al7)99Si1 BMGs were explored at non-isothermal and isothermal conditions by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) experiments. The Si doping enhances the activation energy of crystallization transformation (resistance against crystallization) under both thermal circumstances. Avrami exponents were obtained by employing the Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov (JMAK) model. In the isothermal regime, Avrami exponents in both BMGs were 2.2, which reveals that the dominant mechanism of crystallization is the three-dimensional growth with a decreasing nucleation rate of crystals. The time–temperature–transformation or TTT diagram displayed that minor alloying of Si displaced the crystallization transformation to elevated temperatures and longer incubation times.

This research work aims to study the effect of 2wt%Mo on bainitic transformation kinetics and bainite morphology in 0.6wt%C-1.2wt%Si-1.0wt%Mn-0.2wt%Cr steel. Specimens are austenitized at 950 degrees C and rapidly cooled in salt bath and isothermally treated between 200 degrees C-300 degrees C for different time intervals. Another set of specimens are rapidly cooled in oil after an austenitization treatment and then tempered in the temperature range of 200 degrees C-550 degrees C. In C-Mn-Si specimens, the amount of retained austenite increases with increasing the amount of bainite but no retained austenite is observed in bainitic C-Mn-Si-Mo specimens. The tempering behavior of C-Mn-Si-Mo alloy is considerably different than that of the Mo free alloy. Mo in a martensitic microstructure of C-Mn-Si-Mo alloy shows the secondary hardening effect peak upon tempering at 500 degrees C. The examination of the secondary hardening would also contribute to the behavior of Mo in tempered bainitic steels. The bainitic specimens do not show a peak hardness but softening is retarded upon tempering at the same temperature range.

Quenched and tempered Fe-9Ni (wt. %) steels have been widely used in cryogenic applications. For the first time, the formation of nodular bainite in an Fe-9.10Ni-0.06C (wt. %) steel during isothermal transformation at 550 and 500°C for 24 h is reported. Electron microscopy revealed that proeutectoid ferrite forms predominantly by a massive transformation at prior austenite grain boundaries or at intragranular inclusions as the first stage of austenite decomposition. Then, nodular bainite composed of a ferritic matrix and rows of fine cementite precipitates, forms by interphase boundary precipitation during decomposition of adjacent C-enriched austenite. Both the Bagarayatskii and Isaichev orientation relationships were observed between ferrite and cementite in the nodular bainite. Microhardness of nodular bainite in the sample transformed at 500°C (214 ± 4 VHN) was higher than that in the sample transformed at 550°C (195 ± 5 VHN), due to smaller sizes of cementite precipitates in the former.

Carbo-austempered steels with a nanobainitic microstructure in the case are established as an exciting alternative in applications demanding high stability and reliability against wear and fatigue. In this work, the effect of heat treatment conditions, i.e. austenitizing and isothermal transformation temperatures, on the wear behavior under rolling/sliding conditions of a carburized cast steel with a nanobainitic structure in the surface was examined. The results show that wear damage is mainly due to contact fatigue, with a small extent of oxidative wear, abrasion and adhesion. The results were compared with the conventional tempered martensite plus retained austenite microstructure obtained by means of carburizing followed by quenching and tempering. The nanobainitic microstructures show a better wear resistance than the quenched and tempered microstructures. Also, the specific wear rate in carbo-austempered steels was lower as the isothermal heat treatment temperature decreased. Results are explained in terms of the microstructural differences, hardening behavior and plasticity of the materials under study., The authors want to thank the CODI-Universidad de Antioquia for the financial support for the development of this research through the project PRG2017-15869, the National Center for Metallurgical Research - CENIM - and the Tribology and Surfaces Laboratory at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellin, for the support provided for the experimental development of this work.

Hysteresis is an important phase transformation property to understand and control in shape-memory materials. While a detailed understanding of hysteresis has been developed in shape-memory alloys (SMAs), it is far less understood in emerging shape-memory ceramics (SMCs). Here, we systematically study thermal hysteresis of the tetragonal-monoclinic martensitic transformation in ZrO2-CeO2 SMCs. We present calorimetry measurements of thermal hysteresis, which reveal a non-monotonic trend with CeO2 content as well as significant rate dependence, and correlate these findings with the transformation crystallography measured by in situ X-ray diffraction. We quantitatively analyze these results in the framework of martensite nucleation theory and conclude that the initial decrease in hysteresis with CeO2 content can be attributed to improving interface compatibility (λ2) for coherent nucleation whereas the sharp increase in hysteresis at higher CeO2 contents (below temperatures of ~773 K) is a result of interface friction consistent with thermally-activated interactions with the Peierls barrier of the crystal. Our analysis gives an activation energy of ~136 kJ/mol, which is consistent with previously reported activation energies of isothermal transformation in these materials. These findings clarify contradicting reports in the ZrO2 literature and confirm that the same controlling factors of hysteresis in SMAs, namely λ2 and thermal friction, are also operative in SMCs.

A significant difference in properties and structure of Fe-Ga alloys in their equilibrium and metastable states limits their application. This necessitates an immediate understanding of the importance of cooling rate in the formation of alloy metastable and equilibrium structures. In this paper, we experimentally studied the structure of the Fe-(23−24) Ga alloys after both (i) cooling with different cooling rates and (ii) isothermal annealing between 300 and 575 °C up to 1800 h to report the alloy structure and present the Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) diagrams for the metastable to equilibrium transition in these alloys. The critical cooling rates were defined with respect to the formation of the equilibrium state. A theoretical model along with corresponding Monte Carlo simulations for modeling phase transitions and construction of TTT diagram for the same alloys were developed: simulated phase diagrams were analyzed with respect to our the experimental findings.

International audience; This paper presents a coupled approach able to describe γ precipitation evolution and associated yield strength after various heat treatments in Inconel 718 alloy. The precipitation state is modeled via the implementation of classical nucleation and growth theories for plate-shaped particles. The precipitation model is validated through small-angle neutron scattering and transmission electron microscopy experiments. The precipitation size distribution serves as an input parameter to model the yield strength using a micromechanical model based on shear and bypass mechanisms accounting for the particular shapes of the precipitates. Results are in good agreement with measured yield stresses for various precipitation states. A complete simulated TTT diagram of the γ phase with the associated yield strength is proposed. The coupled model is finally applied to a series of non-isothermal treatments representative of welding (or additive manufacturing) from the peak aged state.

Cold crystallization of amorphous pharmaceuticals is an important aspect in the search to stabilize amorphous or glassy compounds used as amorphous pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). In the present work, we report results for the isothermal crystallization of the compound GDC-0276 based on differential scanning calorimetric and rheometric measurements. The kinetics of isothermal crystallization from the induction time to the completion of crystallization can be described by the classic Johnson-Mehl-Avrami (JMA) equation. The time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams were constructed for two time points-that of induction and that of completion of crystallization. The results show that the rheological measurement for GDC-0276 has a better overall sensitivity in detection of the early stage nucleation and, consequently, detects the onset of crystallization sooner than does the differential scanning calorimetry. Rheological measurements were also used to obtain the temperature dependence of the viscosity of GDC-0276 and the relevant parameters were used in a modified form of the JMA model to describe the temperature dependence of the crystal induction and completion times, that is, the TTT diagram for the material. In the modification, we assumed that the kinetics followed the viscosity to the 0.75 power as suggested by the recent work of Huang et al. (Huang, C., et al., J. Chem. Phys.2018,149, 054503). The relationship and the possible impact on crystallization kinetics of the break-down of the Stokes-Einstein relation in glass-forming liquids are discussed. From the crystallization kinetics modeling, the solid-liquid interfacial surface tension σSL was obtained for GDC-0276 and was compared with that obtained from the melting point depression measurements of the material confined in nanoporous glasses. The differences between the values from the two methods are discussed.

International audience; The effects of tensile stresses on isothermal bainitic transformation were studied in the case of a 35MV7 steel. The modification of transformation kinetics and the presence of transformation plasticity is shown in a first step. Furthermore the effect of stress on the morphological modifications of the ferrite laths is illustrated. The role of the stress on these changes is analysed.

The in situ differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) technique has been applied to investigate the solidification paths of a basaltic liquid. The starting glass was heated up to 1300°C, kept at this superliquidus temperature for 2 h and cooled at rates (ΔT/Δt) of 7, 60, 180, 1000, and 1800°C/h, down to 800 and 600°C. Glass transition temperature (Tg), crystallization temperature (Tx_HR) and melting temperature (Tm) were measured by in situ DSC spectra on heating. Tx measured along the cooling paths (Tx_CR) shows exothermic peaks that change from a single symmetric shape (7 and 60°C/h) to multi-component patterns (180, 1000, and 1800°C/h). The recovered products characterized by field emission gun source of the scanning electron microscopy and electron probe micro-analyzer-wavelength dispersive spectrometers show a phase assemblage of spinel (sp), clinopyroxene (cpx), melilite (mel), plagioclase (plg), and glass. Moreover, crystal size distributions (CSDs) and growth rates (Gmax and GCSD) were also determined. The crystal content slightly increases from 7 to 1800°C/h. Faceted sp are present in all the run products with an amount always

This paper presents tests of metallic glass based on Mg72Zn24Ca4 alloy. Metallic glass was made using induction melting and further injection on a rotating copper wheel. A differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) was used to investigate the phase transformation of an amorphous ribbon. The tests were carried out at an isothermal annealing temperature of 507 K. The Kolmogorov-Johnson-Mahl-Avrami-Evans model was used to analyze the crystallization kinetics of the amorphous Mg72Zn24Ca4 alloy. In this model, both Avrami&rsquo, s exponent n and transformation rate constant K were analyzed. Both of these kinetic parameters were examined as a function of time and the solid fraction. The Avrami exponent n value at the beginning of the crystallization process has value n = 1.9 and at the end of the crystallization process has value n = 3.6. The kinetic constant K values change in the opposite way as the exponent n. At the beginning of the crystallization process the constant K has value K = 9.19 &times, 10&minus, 7 s&minus, n (ln(K) = &minus, 13.9) and at the end of the crystallization process has the value K = 6.19 &times, 9 s&minus, 18.9). These parameters behave similarly, analyzing them as a function of the duration of the isothermal transformation. The exponent n increases and the constant K decreases with the duration of the crystallization process. With such a change of the Avrami exponent n and the transformation rate constant K, the crystallization process is controlled by the 3D growth on predetermined nuclei. Because each metallic glass has a place for heterogeneous nucleation, so called pre-existing nuclei, in which nucleation is strengthened and the energy barrier is lowered. These nuclei along with possible surface-induced crystallization, lead to rapid nucleation at the beginning of the process, and therefore a larger transformed fraction than expected for purely uniform nucleation. These sites are used and saturated with time, followed mainly by homogeneous nucleation. In addition, such a high value of the Avrami exponent n at the end of the crystallization process can cause the impingement effect, heterogeneous distribution of nuclei and the diffusion-controlled grain growth in the Mg72Zn24Ca4 metallic glassy alloy.

In this paper, we present the problem of gas and dolomite outbursts in copper mines. The energy balance of the phenomenon is analyzed. An examination of the porosity of the dolomites is performed; in addition, the content and pressure of the gas accumulated in the pore structure of the rock are determined. The gas energy accumulated in the pore space of rocks is determined depending on the transformation occurring during gas decompression. The work needed to crush the rock for the grain distribution characteristic of post-outburst masses is examined. The gas energy needed to transport rocks is analyzed. The purpose of the research is to determine the limit values of parameters describing the gas and rock system for which there is a risk of dolomite and rock explosions. For the characteristic porosity of dolomites of −5%, gas and rock outbursts at 5 MPa pressure in isothermal transformation can be expected, and if the transformation is closer to adiabatic transformation, outbursts can be expected at 10 MPa pressure.

AISI 1018 mild steels are widely used for engineering applications in machine components and for structural purposes. These materials suffer mechanical damages especially when used under critical conditions of extreme load. In this study, the effect of austempering heat-treatment on the hardness, tensile strength, impact energy and the microstructure of AISI 1018 steels were evaluated. The steel specimens were subjected to austempering heat-treatment by austenitizing at a temperature of 830°C, maintained at this temperature for a period of 1 hour 30 minutes, before rapidly cooled down in a NaNO3 salt bath maintained at 300°C for isothermal transformation for a further 50 minutes before finally cooled down to room temperature. Microstructural analysis using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) shows transformation from ferrite/pearlite to bainite microstructure. The tensile strengths of the specimen increased from 400 MPa to 500 Mpa; hardness increased from an average value of 140Rc to 162Rc; while impact energy increased from 15.6 Joule to 30.6 Joule by the austempering heat-treatment. Keywords—Austempering, hardness, tensile strength, impact energy, microstructure

Precipitation strengthened, fully ferritic microstructures in low-carbon, microalloyed steels are used in applications requiring enhanced stretch-flange formability. This work assesses the influence of thermomechanical processing on the evolution of austenite and the associated final ferritic microstructures. Hot strip mill processing simulations were performed on a low-carbon, titanium-molybdenum microalloyed steel using hot torsion testing to investigate the effects of extensive differences in austenite strain accumulation on austenite morphology and microstructural development after isothermal transformation. The gradient of imposed shear strain with respect to radial position inherent to torsion testing was utilized to explore the influence of strain on microstructural development for a given simulation, and a tangential cross-section technique was employed to quantify the amount of shear strain that accumulated within the austenite during testing. Greater austenite shear strain accumulation resulted in greater refinement of both the prior austenite and polygonal ferrite grain sizes. Further, polygonal ferrite grain diameter distributions were narrowed, and the presence of hard, secondary phase constituents was minimized, with greater amounts of austenite strain accumulation. The results indicate that extensive austenite strain accumulation before decomposition is required to achieve desirable, ferritic microstructures.

The tendencies of development within the field of engineering materials show a persistent trend towards the increase of strength and toughness. This pressure is particularly pronounced in the field of steels, since they compete with light alloys and composite materials in many applications. The improvement of steels&rsquo, mechanical properties is sought to be achieved with the formation of exceptionally fine microstructures ranging well into the nanoscale, which enable a substantial increase in strength without being detrimental to toughness. The preferred route by which such a structure can be produced is not by applying the external plastic deformation, but by controlling the phase transformation from austenite into ferrite at low temperatures. The formation of bainite in steels at temperatures lower than about 200 &deg, C enables the obtainment of the bulk nanostructured materials purely by heat treatment. This offers the advantages of high productivity, as well as few constraints in regard to the shape and size of the workpiece when compared with other methods for the production of nanostructured metals. The development of novel bainitic steels was based on high Si or high Al alloys. These groups of steels distinguish a very fine microstructure, comprised predominantly of bainitic ferrite plates, and a small fraction of retained austenite, as well as carbides. The very fine structure, within which the thickness of individual bainitic ferrite plates can be as thin as 5 nm, is obtained purely by quenching and natural ageing, without the use of isothermal transformation, which is characteristic for most bainitic steels. By virtue of their fine structure and low retained austenite content, this group of steels can develop a very high hardness of up to 65 HRC, while retaining a considerable level of impact toughness. The mechanical properties were evaluated by hardness measurements, impact testing of notched and unnotched specimens, as well as compression and tensile tests. Additionally, the steels&rsquo, microstructures were characterised using light microscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The obtained results confirmed that the strong refinement of the microstructural elements in the steels results in a combination of extremely high strength and very good toughness.

Purified myelin membranes (PMMs) are the starting material for biochemical studies, from individual components up to the isolation of detergent-resistant membrane (DRM) fractions or detergent-insoluble glycosphingolipid (DIG) fractions, which are commonly believed to resemble physiological lipid rafts. The normal DIG isolation protocol involves the extraction of lipids under moderate cooling. The isolation of PMMs also involves the cooling of myelin as well as exposure to low ionic strength (IS). Here, we addressed the combined influence of cooling and IS on the structure of PMMs. The phase behaviour was investigated by small angle X-ray diffraction. Analysis of the diffraction peaks revealed the lamellar periodicity ( d ), the number of periodically correlated bilayers ( N ), and the relatives fractions of each phase. Departure from physiological conditions induced a phase separation in myelin. The effect of monovalent and divalent ions was also compared at equivalent IS, showing a differential effect, and phase diagrams for both ion types were established&mdash, Ca2+ induced the well-known over-compacted phase, but additionally we also found an expanded phase at low IS. Na+ promoted phase separation, and also induced over-compaction at sufficiently high IS. Finally, exploring the whole phase diagram, we found evidence for the direct isothermal transformation from the expanded to the compacted phase, suggesting that both phases could in fact originate from the identical primary lateral phase separation, whereas the apparent difference lies in the inter-bilayer interaction that is modulated by the ionic milieu.

A simple mathematical model for establishing isothermal transformation kinetics from continuous cooling transformation data is presented. A new regression function of k, which is a reaction parameter of the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami equation is proposed. The isothermal transformation kinetics of austenite-pearlite transformation in a eutectoid steel is converted from continuous cooling transformation data using the regression function in combination with the inverse additivity rule. The converted isothermal transformation kinetics excellently agrees with experimental results irrespective of temperature, showing a big improvement compared with a previous model.

Heat treatment modifies the structure of steel to obtain desired properties. The material is heated to some temperature at or above the critical range in order to form austenite. Different heat treatments are based on the subsequent cooling and reheating of the austenitized material. Phase diagrams are important tools for understanding the heat treatment process. Isothermal Transformation (ITh) or Time temperature transformation (TTT) diagrams have been developed to predict non-equilibrium structures.

Carburising followed by martensitic hardening is state of the art in the gear industry today. Carburisation followed by isothermal transformation into a partial or fully bainitic microstructure has not been systematically examined and evaluated yet. Especially isothermal transformation of carburised parts into lower bainite is promising in terms of the characteristic mechanical values of treated parts, due to the increased toughness of the bainite compared to a carbon rich martensite and finely distributed retained austenite. Using this procedure for case hardening requires a quenching technology for isothermal bainitic transformation and additional changes to the process. Examinations of the transformation characteristics of carburised samples in the dilatometer were discussed in the first part of the publication already. This second part examines the microstructures and residual stresses caused by “bainitic case hardening”. The 3rd part will follow in HTM 1/2019.

By means of laser melting and following isothermal transformation (LMFIT), the shear band and α′-martensite in mid-carbon alloy steel layer induced by stress were analyzed. The residual stress, microstructures and nanohardness were analyzed by X-ray stress analyser, X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and nanoindentation. The results indicate that the carbide-free baninte layers with high hardness are formed on the surface of mid-carbon and high-carbon alloy steels. By LMFIT, the hardness of mid-carbon alloy steel layer can be increased by the carbon supersaturation in bainite ferrite (BF). Meanwhile, shear band and α′-martensite can be induced by thermal stress in mid-carbon alloy steel layer to further improve the hardness. The gradient change of residual stress in the bainite layer leads to that of the nanohardness in bainite layer.

Although the phase stability of high-entropy alloys in the Cr-Mn-Fe-Co-Ni system has received considerable attention recently, knowledge of their thermodynamic equilibrium states and precipitation kinetics during high-temperature exposure is limited. In the present study, an off-equiatomic Cr26Mn20Fe20Co20Ni14 high-entropy alloy was solutionized and isothermally aged at temperatures between 600 °C and 1000 °C for times to 1000 h. In the original single-phase fcc matrix, an intermetallic σ phase was found to form at all investigated temperatures. Its morphology and composition were determined and the precipitation kinetics analyzed using the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov equation and an Arrhenius type law. From these analyses, a time-temperature-transformation diagram (TTT diagram) is constructed for this off-equiatomic alloy. We combine our findings with theories of precipitation kinetics developed for traditional polycrystalline fcc alloys to calculate a TTT diagram for the equiatomic CrMnFeCoNi HEA. The results of our investigation may serve as a guide to predict precipitation kinetics in other complex alloys in the Cr-Mn-Fe-Co-Ni system.

In the present study, the effects of ausforming on the bainitic transformation, microstructure and mechanical properties of a low-carbon rich-silicon carbide-free bainitic steel have been investigated. Results show that prior ausforming shortens both the incubation period and finishing time of bainitic transformation during isothermal treatment at a temperature slightly above the Mspoint. The thicknesses of bainitic ferrite laths are reduced appreciably by ausforming; however, ausforming increases the amount of large blocks of retained austenite/martenisite and decreases the volume fraction of retained austenite. And accordingly, ausforming gives rise to significant increases in both yield and tensile strengths, but causes noticeable decreases in ductility and impact toughness.

An algorithm is developed for simulation of phase transitions in the solid state. The algorithm permits the derivation of the corresponding kinetic curves for different initial conditions (quantity and configuration of new-phase nuclei, distance between the closest nuclei). The results of simulation are analyzed by means of the Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov equation and the logistical function for determining the corresponding coefficients. Analogies are established between the results of simulation and the experimental kinetics of isothermal transformation of austenite in alloy steel.

In this study, isothermal bainite transformation kinetics in hypo-eutectoid steel 60Si2CrA was investigated. Isothermal transformation at temperature ranging from [528 K (255 °C)] to [653 K (380 °C)] after austenitization was performed on a quenching dilatometer. Based on the dilation data, a shear bainite kinetics model was established using the internal state variable (ISV) approach. The model is coupling with bainite phase nucleation and growth, and the incubation time is characterized by the proposed normalized bainite nucleus radius and normalized radius growth rate. Material constants within the unified kinetics model were calibrated with genetic algorithm (GA)-based optimization methodology using GA toolbox in MATLAB. Furthermore, fairly close agreement between model predicted and tested data was achieved, and predicted evolution of ISVs in the model was illustrated. The proposed shear-type bainite kinetics model may be applied to other hypo-eutectoid steels.

Graphite formation in the solid state is both in ductile cast irons and in steels strongly promoted by high silicon contents above 3 wt.% Si. The matrix microstructure in austempered ductile iron can be further refined by secondary graphite if the austenitization, quench, and isothermal transformation into ausferrite are preceded by an austenitization at a slightly higher temperature followed by quench to martensite, resulting in higher carbon content than being soluble at the second austenitization temperature. Hypoeutectoid steels with high silicon contents can be rapidly graphitized, causing recrystallization of surrounding ferrite due to plastic deformation making room for less dense graphite. In rolled steels, the interface between manganese sulfide and steel matrix is the most common nucleation site. Voids are formed when graphite is partly or completely dissolved during austenitization in succeeding hardening heat treatments, but the mechanical properties can still be good if the graphite particles dissolved into voids are below 20 µm. Graphitized Si-solution strengthened ferritic steels may perform similar to free-cutting steels but with improved mechanical properties.

The paper discusses the influence of retained austenite formed in a structure after the phase transition in the bainitic temperature range on the properties of structural low-alloy steels. It is shown that the bainite transformation proceeds through two stages. The first stage is characterized by the formation of completely carbide-free bainite containing up to 45% retained austenite, which is stable under deep cooling. The second stage develops with increasing holding time and is accompanied by the release of carbides and a reduction in the amount of retained austenite. The mechanical properties of steels are given in terms of the morphology and chemical composition of the phases forming in the course of isothermal transformation in the bainitic temperature range.

A simple and completely predictive model has been developed to predict whether a multicomponent equiatomic alloy will form a single phase BCC, FCC, HCP or a combination of two or more solid solution phases or intermetallic compounds (IM) or an amorphous phase. This approach is based on the viscosity of alloys as a function of temperature, utilising the viscosities of its constituting elements, and suitably incorporating the crystal structure information. Some other parameters affecting viscosity of an alloy like atomic size of constituting elements, packing density of the unit cell, etc., are suitably incorporated into the model. The temperature-time-transformation (TTT) diagrams were generated with the help of the viscosity data of five widely experimentally examined alloys, CoCrCuFeNi, CoCrFeMnNi, AlCoCrFeNi, AlCuMgMnZn and ZrTiCuNiBe. The chance of formation of preferable lower order alloys has also been considered. In this regard, all the possible binary to quinary alloys that can form from the constituting elements have been studied. The formation of the single phase BCC, FCC, or formation of multi phases, IMs or an amorphous phase in these alloys has been excellently predicted by the model. It has also been revealed that AlCuMgMnZn alloy prefers to form a number of IMs with a rare HCP phase, which matches excellently with the experimental evidence. The most important part of the present work is that it acts as an efficient guide about the processing route that should be used to form an intended phase in a particular alloy via the critical cooling rate Rc obtained through the predicted TTT diagrams. Further, two alloys (AlCoCrFeNi and CoCrFeMnNi) could not be vitrified even via melt spinning route as predicted by the model. Almost all the equiatomic alloys found so far ranging from ternary to octanary according to literature have been studied by the present model. The phase formation in most of the alloys has been predicted correctly by the model.

The precipitation characteristics and mechanism of vanadium carbides during isothermal transformation at 650 °C in a V-microalloyed medium-carbon steel were investigated through scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy as well as dilatometry test. Five morphologies of vanadium carbides were found to precipitate at different nucleation sites during the transformation. Two kinds of interphase precipitation form simultaneously in both pro-eutectoid and pearlitic ferrites. The linear arrays of fine interphase precipitates are parallel to the γ/α interface, and the fine needles of interphase precipitates are perpendicular to the γ/α interface. The vanadium carbides of long or short fibers, coarse particles and fine particles form in both pro-eutectoid and pearlitic ferrites, displaying different precipitation distributions and orientation relationships with ferrite. The precipitation mechanisms of vanadium carbide precipitates with different modes were proposed, and the precipitation sequence of various vanadium carbide precipitates was finally ascertained.

The kinetic behavior of highly undercooled austenite and its effects on the microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of high-carbon steel are studied. The undercooling degree is increased through a temporary undercooling treatment at the bainite transformation temperature of 380 °C to 450 °C before the pearlite isothermal transformation at 500 °C to 620 °C. The transformation kinetics reveals an increased nose temperature and a rightward shift of the transformation curve under high undercooling conditions. In addition, the undercooling treatment leads to an increased driving force during pearlite transformation, which is responsible for the refined hierarchical structures of pearlite. As a result, a 20 to 40 pct size reduction is achieved for pearlite colonies and lamellae. Such refinement is in turn attributed to an ~ 26 pct increase in reduction in area. This work provides both a new understanding of high-performance fully pearlitic steels for practical applications and new perspectives for potential technological applications in drawing processes for hypoeutectoid steels.

Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to investigate plain carbon steel exposed to dry air and wet air containing 4 vol% water vapor at 750 °C to simulate the formation of tertiary scale during hot-strip rolling. After the exposure to oxidation condition, the specimens were isothermally held at temperature in the range of 300–500 °C in inert argon (Ar) atmosphere for 10–240 min, and the isothermal phase transformation behavior of FeO was investigated. The morphology, element distribution, and phase composition of oxide scales after isothermal transformation were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction, respectively. The experimental results indicate that wet air accelerated the growth rate of the oxide scale. Moreover, the time–temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams of oxide scales grown in dry and wet air conditions were constructed to elucidate the isothermal phase transformation behavior of the FeO layer. The rate of isothermal phase transformation in the scale formed in wet air was significantly delayed compared to that in dry air, which caused the C-type TTT diagram to shift to the right. Two mechanisms elucidating the effects of initial oxidation atmosphere on the subsequent isothermal phase transformation behavior of FeO during inert atmosphere annealing were proposed.

The effect of Cr, Mn, and the isothermal holding temperature on inverse bainitic transformation in hypereutectoid steels is investigated. Thermodynamic driving force is calculated for the onset of nucleation of cementite and ferrite from parent austenite, Hultgren extrapolation of Ae3 and Acm phase boundaries, and the molar Gibbs energy change for austenite to ferrite transformation. For a given carbon concentration above the eutectoid carbon concentration, inverse bainite is favored at a lower Cr and higher Mn concentrations in the steel. With the increase in Cr concentration, the inverse bainitic start temperature has been found to increase. Cr partitioning from parent austenite to form Cr7C3 or Cr23C6 occurs only at prolonged transformation time (10000 s and above), by when the inverse bainitic transformation is complete. Cementite is the favored carbide nucleating from parent austenite during the inverse bainitic transformation. With the increase in Mn concentration, both the inverse bainitic start and finish temperatures have been found to decrease. For a given chemical composition, inverse bainite is generally favored below the pearlitic transformation temperature. Inverse bainitic transformation gets suppressed when the isothermal transformation temperature is lowered, in which case conventional upper/lower bainite is the favored transformation product.

The work presents the results on the structure of CuNi2Si1 copper alloy. The alloy was treated in two variants: supersaturation - aging (variant I) and supersaturation - cold rolling - aging (Variant II).The structure of the CuNi2Si1 alloyed copper were analyzed by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The TEM investigation showed in the Cu matrix after applying cold rolling after solution heat treatment, during aging at 600°C, causes the Ni2Si phase occurrence immediately after the begin of aging. Cold rolling (50% reduction) of the CuNi2Si1 alloy after supersaturation changes the mechanism and kinetics of precipitation and provides possibilities for production of broader sets of functional properties.

The effects of Nickle (Ni) addition on bainitic transformation and property of ultrahigh strength bainitic steels are investigated by three austempering processes. The results indicate that Ni addition hinders the isothermal bainite transformation kinetics, and decreases the volume fraction of bainite due to the decrease of chemical driving force for nucleation and growth of bainite transformation. Moreover, the product of tensile strength and total elongation (PSE) of high carbon bainitic steels decreases with Ni addition at higher austempering temperatures (220 and 250 °C), while it shows no significant difference at lower austempering temperature (200 °C). For the same steel (Ni-free or Ni-added steel), the amounts of bainite and RA firstly increase and then decrease with the increase of the austempering temperature, resulting in the highest PSE in the sample austempered at temperature of 220 °C. In addition, the effects of austempering time on bainite amount and property of high carbon bainitic steels are also analyzed. It indicates that in a given transformation time range of 30 h, more volume of bainite and better mechanical property in high carbon bainitic steels can be obtained by increasing the isothermal transformation time.

The thermodynamic properties and crystallization kinetics of the Co90Sc10 amorphous alloy prepared by rapid quench technique were investigated by X-ray diffractometer (XRD), differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), and simultaneous thermal analyzer (STA). In the isochronal heating process, the activation energy of crystallization is 388 kJ/mol, which was calculated by Kissinger method. The Johnson-Mehl-Avrami (JMA) model was used to describe the isothermal transformation kinetics. The variation of the activation energy of the isothermal process indicated that tiny Co particles precipitate out in the supercooled liquid region and become the nuclei of crystallization that reduce the activation energy at the beginning of crystallization process. Comprehensive results show that a-Co90Sc10 is a promising soft magnetic material for various applications.

International audience; The industrial importance of carbonitriding is owed to the exceptional wear and fatigue resistance it imparts to treated steel parts. This resistance is related to microstructural changes occurring during the enrichment treatment and upon cooling. Here, the effects of interstitial contents, in particular nitrogen, and transformation temperature were investigated in 23MnCrMo5 steel. Samples were homogeneously enriched in the austenitic phase and the isothermal transformation of the enriched austenite between 750 °C and 600 °C was studied. CrN was found to precipitate during the enrichment treatment. During subsequent isothermal holding, CrN precipitate as fine platelets in nitrogen containing samples. At equal carbon content, ferrite formed faster and in finer grains in presence of nitrogen. Preexisting CrN facilitate ferrite nucleation resulting in more numerous ferrite grains. The intense nitride precipitation is the main origin for enhanced hardness in nitrogen-enriched alloys. The exact mechanism leading to the observed microstructures could not be determined and remains under investigation. In particular, the high nitrogen supersaturation of ferrite required to produce the observed fraction of CrN has to be explained.

The phase transformation kinetics of Cu-Be-Co-Zr alloy during aging treatment was investigated. Based on the relationship between electrical conductivity and volume fraction of precipitates, the phase transformation ratios of Cu-Be-Co-Zr alloy aged at 480 °C for different holding time (0, 30, 60, 120, 180, 240, 360, 480, and 600 min) were calculated. The kinetics equation of phase transformation and the electrical conductivity equation were derived. The isothermal transformation kinetics S-curves of Cu-Be-Co-Zr alloy was drawn. By the integral equation of solid thermal decomposition reaction mechanism, the phase transformation mechanism of Cu-Be-Co-Zr alloy is controlled by three dimensions of diffusion.

Thermomechanical controlled processing of 560-MPa (X90) linepipe steel was simulated in the laboratory using a thermomechanical simulator to study the microstructural evolution and precipitation behavior during isothermal holding. The results indicated that martensite was obtained when the steels were isothermally held for 5 s at 700 °C. Subsequently, granular bainite and acicular ferrite transformation occurred with increased holding time. Different amount of polygonal ferrite formed after isothermally holding for 600-3600 s. Pearlite nucleated after isothermally holding for 3600 s. Precipitation occurred after isothermal holding for 5 s and continuous precipitation occurred at grain boundaries after isothermally holding for 600 s. After isothermally holding for 3600 s, large Nb/Ti carbide precipitated. The presence of MX-type precipitates was confirmed by diffraction pattern. The interphase precipitation (IP) occurred between 5 and 30 s. Maximum hardness was obtained after isothermally holding for 600 s when IP occurred and rapidly decreased to a low value, mainly because polygonal ferrite dominated the microstructure after isothermally holding for 3600 s.

The polymorphism of glycolide has been investigated. Form 1 and Form 2 of glycolide have been identified and characterized by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetry (TG) analyses were carried out to study the thermodynamic stability relationships and the transition of the two forms of glycolide. Based on the heat of transition rule, Form 1 and Form 2 were determined as an enantiotropic system. The solubility measurements were done at 310.15 K under atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) by using the isothermal gravimetrical method for form 1 in this work. According to the solubility data of glycolide Form 1 and Form 2 in ethyl acetate, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, ethanol and 1-butanol, the transition temperature was then estimated by solubility extrapolation method, heat of transition (ΔHtr) method and confirmed by isothermal transformation method at (308.35 ± 0.5) K. Among these three methods, the isothermal transformation method provided the most accurate transition temperature with the help of suspended-transformation experiments monitored by online Raman spectroscopy.

The crystallization kinetics of CaO-SiO2-Al2O3-MgO (CSAM) slags was studied with the aid of single hot thermocouple technique (SHTT). Kinetic parameters such as the Avrami exponent (n), rate coefficient (K), and effective activation energy of crystallization (E A ) were obtained by kinetic analysis of data obtained from in situ observation of glassy to crystalline transformation and image analysis. Also, the dependence of nucleation and growth rates of crystalline phases were quantified as a function of time, temperature, and slag basicity. Together with the observations of crystallization front, they facilitated establishing the dominant mechanisms of crystallization. In an attempt to predict crystallization rate under non-isothermal conditions, a mathematical model was developed that employs the rate data of isothermal transformation. The model was validated by reproducing an experimental continuous cooling transformation diagram purely from isothermal data.

With austenite under 50% compression using a dilatometer, ferrite transformation in a low-carbon Ti-V-bearing steel was sequenced through the isothermal transformation at 650 °C for various holding times (10 s, 20 s, 30 s). Bimodal grain size distribution was observed in the prolonged holding conditions. Corresponding measurements of Vickers and nano-indentation hardness were carried out; the tiny ferrite grains possessed lower hardness (303 HV and 4.8 GPa) as compared to larger ferrite grains (336 HV and 5.6 GPa). Transmission electron microscopy provided strong evidence attributing this discrepancy to interphase precipitation taking place in the larger-grained ferrite, instead of in the tiny-grained ferrite.