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Bypass diode failures have been observed within solar photovoltaic (PV) plants after thunderstorm activity, with no evidence of direct lightning strikes to the PV plant. This paper examines the mechanisms by which currents may be induced within PV installations. Firstly by means of computational electromagnetic simulations, and secondly by means of real-world testing in a high-voltage laboratory. These investigations were conducted with the objective of minimizing the magnitudes of induced currents within a PV installation. It was found that poor inter-module wiring in a PV installation, and not the internal layout of the PV modules themselves, resulted in the largest magnitudes of the induced currents, and that better wiring practice would significantly reduce these magnitudes. The presence of the conductive frame of a PV module was shown to reduce the magnitudes of the currents induced within the installation.

Bypass diode failures have been observed within solar photovoltaic (PV) plants after thunderstorm activity, with no evidence of direct lightning strikes to the PV plant. Previous research has found that bypass diodes are typically weakest in reverse bias, when the reverse current reaches a critical threshold. This paper suggests the use of metal oxide varistors (MOVs) as a potential bypass diode protection measure. MOVs are shown to adequately protect a bypass diode to a level more than double that of where a bypass diode would normally fail, by providing an alternative conduction path for surges induced within a PV installation.

Bypass diode failures were observed within three utility-scale photovoltaic (PV) plants after thunderstorm activity, with no evidence of direct lightning strikes to the PV plant. This paper investigates the mechanisms by which currents may be induced within PV installations. Firstly, computational electromagnetic simulations are performed for both a standalone PV model, as well as a series-connected array of four PV modules. Secondly, real-world testing with an actual PV module, as well as a thin-wire model of a PV module, was performed in a high-voltage laboratory. These investigations were conducted with the objective of minimizing the magnitudes of induced currents within a PV installation. It was found that poor inter-module wiring in a PV installation, and not the internal layout of the PV modules themselves, resulted in the largest magnitudes of the induced currents, and that better wiring practice would significantly reduce these magnitudes. The presence and geometry of the conductive frame of a PV module was shown to reduce the magnitude of the currents induced within the installation.

Since the 1980s, the ways that Australian employees’ wages and working conditions are determined have changed dramatically. Awards issued by the industrial relations tribunal declined in significance while new forms of registered agreements negotiated between employers, employees and unions were introduced and encouraged. While the roles of trade unions, employer associations, and political parties in driving these changes are well understood, the complex mix of legislative and non-legislative processes of institutional change requires further explanation. The central objective of this thesis is to explore how structural factors shaped the processes of institutional change that altered pay and condition-setting practices in Australia between 1983 and 2013. In 1983 the Labor Government negotiated a Prices and Incomes Accord with the union movement; three decades of change later, another Labor Government passed its last refining amendments to their Fair Work legislation before losing office in mid-2013. The thesis examines the processes of change affecting pay and condition-setting institutions through a detailed chronological analysis of these changes and their contexts that combines analytical techniques from labour law and political studies. To understand the role of structural factors in shaping the processes of change, the thesis applies a theory proposed by James Mahoney and Kathleen Thelen (2010) that conceives of multiple types or ‘modes’ of institutional change and uses structural factors to explain why one mode of institutional change occurs rather than another. The thesis argues that four distinct phases of institutional change affected wage and condition-setting practices in Australia between 1983 and 2013. Each chronological phase was characterised by the predominance of a different mode of institutional change. These four phases of institutional change can be effectively explained within Mahoney and Thelen’s theoretical framework using three key structural factors that shape and constrain actors’ capacity to implement different types of institutional change. In this case, these structural factors are the discretion afforded to the industrial relations tribunal by legislative rules (‘rule discretion’), the opportunities to block legislative change (‘formal veto possibilities’), and the capacity of interest groups to block changes to practices on the ground (‘informal veto possibilities’). The thesis argues that processes of change are constrained by nationally specific structural factors and that the framework based on rule discretion and formal and informal veto possibilities will be highly useful for explaining processes of institutional change affecting industrial relations at other times and in other countries. The thesis makes important contributions to three bodies of knowledge. First, this is the only study that sustains a detailed institutional analysis of changes affecting wage and condition-setting practices in Australia from the initiation of the Prices and Incomes Accord in 1983 through to the legislative framework, which, in amended form, remains in effect today. By explaining how structural factors shaped four distinct chronological phases of institutional change, the thesis balances and complements the abundant explanations for Australia’s changing wage and condition-setting practices that focus on the agency of trade unions, employer associations, the industrial relations tribunal and political parties. Second, testing Mahoney and Thelen’s theory makes an important contribution to Historical Institutionalism because the theory has been widely cited but received limited empirical application. It reveals further avenues for theoretical development regarding strategic agency and choice within structural constraints. The thesis also demonstrates the analytical usefulness of one specific mode of institutional change that has been largely overlooked by the Historical Institutionalist literature – institutional resettlement. Third, the thesis makes a major contribution to debates about whether industrial relations systems are converging or will continue to follow nationally specific trajectories of change.

Die seit mehr als zwei Jahrzehnten gueltige DIN 4093:1987-09 „Einpressen in den Untergrund“ musste wegen Konflikten mit den neu erarbeiteten europaeischen Ausfuehrungsnormen zurueckgezogen werden. DIN 4093 enthielt bisher sowohl Regelungen fuer die Bemessung als auch fuer die Bauausfuehrung. In der neuen DIN 4093 sind nur noch der Entwurf und die Bemessung von Injektionskoerpern geregelt, nicht mehr die Ausfuehrung. Der Beitrag kommentiert vor diesem Hintergrund die neue DIN 4093 „Bemessung von verfestigten Bodenkoerpern“. Der Geltungsbereich der neuen DIN 4093 regelt jetzt nicht nur Injektionen, sondern umfasst auch Duesenstrahlinjektionen und im Deep-Mixing-Verfahren hergestellte Koerper. Die Norm regelt, wie derartige Koerper geplant, hinsichtlich ihrer Festigkeit nachgewiesen und geprueft werden sollen. Entsprechend dem neuen Sicherheitskonzept setzt die Norm das Teilsicherheitskonzept um und folgt dabei der Gliederungsstruktur des Eurocode 7. Dazu werden wichtige Abschnitte aus der neuen Bemessungsnorm DIN 4093:2015-10 erlaeutert. Eingegangen wird zunaechst auf die uebergeordneten „Allgemeinen Anforderungen fuer Bodenverfestigungen“ und die „Zuordnung zu Geotechnischen Kategorien“. Es schliessen sich Ausfuehrungen an zu den Einwirkungen und Beanspruchungen sowie zur Bestimmung der Widerstaende von Bodenverfestigungen. Wegen des komplexen Zusammenwirkens von Boden und Verfestigungskoerper wird gefordert, dass die Festigkeit versuchsgestuetzt zu bestimmen ist. Die hierbei geltenden Regelungen werden in Abhaengigkeit von der Art der verfestigten Bodenkoerper ausfuehrlich kommentiert. Die Norm regelt auch den versuchsgestuetzten Nachweis von Verankerungen mit Haftverbund zwischen Mikropfaehlen nach DIN EN 14199 und Duesenstrahlsonden. Da die Abmessungen der Bodenkoerper nicht unmittelbar kontrolliert werden koennen, macht die Norm Vorgaben zu den anzusetzenden geometrischen Groessen und den dabei zu beachtenden Herstellungstoleranzen. Der Nachweis der inneren Tragsicherheit entspricht den gewohnten Grenzzustandsnachweisen des Teilsicherheitskonzepts. Er wird hier jedoch auf kritische Punkte innerhalb des Verfestigungskoerpers bezogen und nicht auf den Gesamtkoerper. Kommentiert werden auch die Regelungen zu den Pruefungen und Kontrollen. Ein Anhang zur Norm enthaelt Regelungen zur Durchfuehrung von Festigkeitspruefungen. Aspekte, die ueber die Norm hinausgehen und ergaenzende Festlegungen in bauaufsichtlicher Hinsicht werden abschliessend behandelt. ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH: The new DIN 4093 contains important rules for the design of strengthened soil installed by jet grouting, soil mixing or grouting. Unlike in the old German grouting standard code, aspects of execution, which are content of European standards, are no longer included. This publication explains essential requirements and recommendations of this completely new standard code as well as some particularities which have to be obeyed prior to the application of the named technologies. (A)

The Asian clam, Corbicula fluminea, is an exotic freshwater bivalve that was first introduced to the United States in the early 1930s. Populations of C. fluminea have rapidly spread over the country due to its high reproductive output and short life cycle. Due to its numerical abundance and filter-feeding behavior, C. fluminea has the potential to impact water quality through a reduction of turbidity as well as possibly removing particulate pollutants such as nutrients. In the Delaware River system, where C. fluminea was first documented over 40 years ago, Asian clams have assumed a dominant position in the benthic community of many streams, often representing a majority of benthic faunal biomass. Despite its potential to alter stream ecology, there have been few studies regarding the clam's feeding behavior on natural seston diets and seasonal changes in population demographics and feeding processes. Seasonal changes in natural seston quantity and quality, physiological rates including clearance rates of C. fluminea, and Asian clam size and population density were contrasted between two representative tributaries of the Delaware River basin: the Cooper River, NJ, and Red Clay Creek, DE. Data from seston analyses, physiology studies, and population surveys were coupled to estimate the importance of clam-mediated particle filtration in removing suspended matter flowing through each study stream. Seston quantity and quality were greater in the Cooper River than in Red Clay Creek during all seasons. Clearance rates (units = water volume processed) were seasonally consistent for Asian clams in the Cooper River but showed a seasonal drop for clams in Red Clay Creek. Clams from the Cooper River had greater seasonal filtration rates (units = mass of seston removed) and were larger on average than clams from Red Clay Creek. Due to greater seston quantity and quality, Asian clams in the Cooper River were able to feed during three seasons and were more likely to successfully overwinter compared to clams in Red Clay Creek, where clams appeared to be food limited. Population densities were less than 100 clams / m2 in Cooper River and Red Clay Creek and demonstrated seasonal variability. Populations of Asian clams in both streams were found to be reproductive. Asian clams in the Cooper River were estimated to remove a greater amount of suspended particulate matter in the water column than clams in Red Clay Creek. Particle removal services of Asian clams were estimated to be 5.4 and 0.4 metric tons of total suspended solids per kilometer per year in Cooper River and Red Clay Creek, respectively. Although sizeable, this represented only 1.6 and 0.13 % of the total seston flowing through each reach, averaged over the year. Additional research on population densities of clams in other reaches of both streams would support extrapolation of particle removal services to entire streams to determine the full ecosystem service potential of C. fluminea.

The dissociation of the two adjacent carboxylic acids in maleic acid-containing copolymers is expected to differ from those of poly(acrylic acid) and poly(methacrylic acid) where the acids are separated by two carbons on the backbone. In this work, we have employed potentiometric titration and NMR spectroscopy to characterize the dissociation behavior and chemical compositions of several water-soluble maleic acid-containing copolymers. A distinct two-step process corresponding to the dissociation of the two adjacent carboxylic acids is observed in aqueous CaCl2 (0.02 N) solution for copolymers of maleic acid and isobutylene, diisobutylene, and styrene. Such a two-step ionization process is less recognizable, however, for the copolymers of maleic acid and linear alkenes ranging from n-hexene to n-octadecene. Nevertheless, the compositions of all copolymers, including the extent of neutralization and the ratio of the comonomer moieties, are estimated from the titration curves. The chemical composition derived from potentiometry and NMR spectroscopy for all copolymers are approximately 1 : 1 (maleic acid : comonomer). With the exception of the hydrophobically modified copolymer of isobutylene-maleic acid, no obvious conformational transition was observed over the whole range of ionization for these hydrophobic maleic acid-containing copolymers. This is related to the aggregated state of these copolymers in aqueous media. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 3571–3583, 2004

Bronchiogenic cysts represent congenital anomalies, which evolve during the development of the tracheobronchial tree from the ventral foregut and are usually located above the diaphragm. In very rare cases, these cysts migrate caudally prior to the fusion of the diaphragm and can therefore be located in the retroperitoneal space. Bronchiogenic cysts within the pancreatic gland have been reported less than ten times in English literature1.

Neben den bekannten Funktionen im ER-assoziierten Proteinabbau (ERAD), wird der AAA-ATPase p97 zunehmend eine Rolle im UPS zugeschrieben. So wurde zum Beispiel erkannt, dass p97 und dessen Adapterprotein Ubxd7 im Turnover des CRL Substrats HIF-1alpha eine Rolle spielen, wobei Ubxd7 direkt über eine UIM-Domäne an das Nedd8 der neddylierten CRL bindet. CRLs sind mit ihrer Vielfalt an Substraten ein wichtiger Faktor für die Zellhomöostase und spielen eine große Rolle bei der Pathogenese maligner oder neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen. Während der Ubiquitylierungsprozess durch CRLs schon detailliert verstanden ist, ist der genaue Mechanismus ihrer Regulation noch zu großen Teilen unklar. Gerade der Interaktion mit Ubxd7 und p97 könnte ein neuer Mechanismus der CRL-Regulation oder Substrat-Prozessierung zu Grunde liegen. In dieser Studie konnte in Zellkultur-basierten Cycloheximid-Turnover-Assays unter Knockdown von Ubxd7 und p97 beobachtet werden, das Ubxd7 und p97 die Ubiquitiylierung von HIF-1alpha abhängig vom Neddylierungstatus der CRLs zu verändern scheinen. Turnover-Assays und in vitro-Ubiquitylierungsreaktionen mit einem HIF-1alpha-Peptid wiesen zudem auf eine CRL-inhibierende Rolle von Ubxd7 hin. Außerdem konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass HIF-1/2alpha als Cullin2VBC-Substrate völlig unabhängig von der Aktivität von Nedd8-E1 und somit unabhängig vom Neddylierungsstatus der CRLs abgebaut werden können. Die Frage, ob CRLs auch in vivo im deneddylierten Zustand HIFs ubiquitylieren und somit deren Abbau vermitteln können oder ob in diesem Fall verschiedene, alternative Abbauwege greifen, bleibt jedoch unbeantwortet.Weiterhin konnte mit Hilfe von Transfektions- und Pulldown-Experimenten das zytosolische und C-terminale HIF-1alpha-Abbauprodukt HDP-80 identifiziert werden, wobei ein möglicher Abbaumechanismus und die physiologische Rolle dieser Beobachtung Gegenstand weiterführender Experimente sein müssen. Zusammen genommen weisen diese Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass Ubxd7 möglicherweise die Funktion von CRLs inhibiert, und dass die Neddylierung für verschiedene Substrate von unterschiedlicher Bedeutung ist. Da die Neddylierung bereits Ziel pharmakologischer Therapien ist (MLN4924), wird es zukünftig von besonderem Interesse sein, wie und in welchem Maße CRL-Substrate davon abhängen., Currently, the protein p97, an AAA-ATPase involved in ER-associated protein degradation (ERAD), is becoming more and more linked to the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). Recently, it was described that p97, together with its adapter protein Ubxd7, is implicated in the turnover of the Cullin-RING ligase (CRL) substrate HIF-1alpha, whereby Ubxd7 through its UIM-domain directly interacts with the Nedd8-conjugated CRL. Regulating a plethora of substrates, CRLs play a pivotal role in cellular homeostasis as well as in the pathogenesis of malignancies and neurodegenerative diseases. While the process of ubiquitylation is well described, a detailed understanding of mechanisms regulating CRLs is still missing. Through their direct interaction with CRLs, p97 and Ubxd7 could potentially be involved in a new mechanism of CRL-regulation or substrate processing. Using tissue culture-based cycloheximide-turnover-assays and knockdowns of Ubxd7 and p97, it was observed that Ubxd7 and p97 seem to alter HIF-1alpha ubiquitylation dependent on the neddylation status of CRLs. Other results from turnover assays and in vitro ubiquitylation assays with a HIF-1alpha peptide also suggest an inhibitory role of Ubxd7 in CRL ubiquitylation reactions. Furthermore, it was shown for the first time that Cullin2VBC substrates HIF-1/2alpha can be degraded independently of Nedd8-E1 activity and CRL-neddylation. It remains unclear, whether either deneddylated CRLs are still able to ubiquitylate HIFs in vivo or if other alternative pathways mediate HIF-degradation while CRLs are deneddylated.Additionally, a cytosolic and C-terminal HIF-1alpha degradation product named HDP-80 was identified using transfection and pulldown experiments. A possible cleavage mechanism and a physiological role for HDP-80 need to be the focus of future investigations. Taken together, these results suggest that Ubxd7 possibly inhibits CRL function and that various CRL-substrates might depend to different degrees on CRL-neddylation. Since neddylation is already a target of pharmacological therapies (MLN4924), it will be of particular interest to determine why and how many CRL-substrates depend on neddylation.

Neben den bekannten Funktionen im ER-assoziierten Proteinabbau (ERAD), wird der AAA-ATPase p97 zunehmend eine Rolle im UPS zugeschrieben. So wurde zum Beispiel erkannt, dass p97 und dessen Adapterprotein Ubxd7 im Turnover des CRL Substrats HIF-1alpha eine Rolle spielen, wobei Ubxd7 direkt über eine UIM-Domäne an das Nedd8 der neddylierten CRL bindet. CRLs sind mit ihrer Vielfalt an Substraten ein wichtiger Faktor für die Zellhomöostase und spielen eine große Rolle bei der Pathogenese maligner oder neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen. Während der Ubiquitylierungsprozess durch CRLs schon detailliert verstanden ist, ist der genaue Mechanismus ihrer Regulation noch zu großen Teilen unklar. Gerade der Interaktion mit Ubxd7 und p97 könnte ein neuer Mechanismus der CRL-Regulation oder Substrat-Prozessierung zu Grunde liegen. In dieser Studie konnte in Zellkultur-basierten Cycloheximid-Turnover-Assays unter Knockdown von Ubxd7 und p97 beobachtet werden, das Ubxd7 und p97 die Ubiquitiylierung von HIF-1alpha abhängig vom Neddylierungstatus der CRLs zu verändern scheinen. Turnover-Assays und in vitro-Ubiquitylierungsreaktionen mit einem HIF-1alpha-Peptid wiesen zudem auf eine CRL-inhibierende Rolle von Ubxd7 hin. Außerdem konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass HIF-1/2alpha als Cullin2VBC-Substrate völlig unabhängig von der Aktivität von Nedd8-E1 und somit unabhängig vom Neddylierungsstatus der CRLs abgebaut werden können. Die Frage, ob CRLs auch in vivo im deneddylierten Zustand HIFs ubiquitylieren und somit deren Abbau vermitteln können oder ob in diesem Fall verschiedene, alternative Abbauwege greifen, bleibt jedoch unbeantwortet. Weiterhin konnte mit Hilfe von Transfektions- und Pulldown-Experimenten das zytosolische und C-terminale HIF-1alpha-Abbauprodukt HDP-80 identifiziert werden, wobei ein möglicher Abbaumechanismus und die physiologische Rolle dieser Beobachtung Gegenstand weiterführender Experimente sein müssen. Zusammen genommen weisen diese Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass Ubxd7 möglicherweise die Funktion von CRLs inhibiert, und dass die Neddylierung für verschiedene Substrate von unterschiedlicher Bedeutung ist. Da die Neddylierung bereits Ziel pharmakologischer Therapien ist (MLN4924), wird es zukünftig von besonderem Interesse sein, wie und in welchem Maße CRL-Substrate davon abhängen. Currently, the protein p97, an AAA-ATPase involved in ER-associated protein degradation (ERAD), is becoming more and more linked to the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). Recently, it was described that p97, together with its adapter protein Ubxd7, is implicated in the turnover of the Cullin-RING ligase (CRL) substrate HIF-1alpha, whereby Ubxd7 through its UIM-domain directly interacts with the Nedd8-conjugated CRL. Regulating a plethora of substrates, CRLs play a pivotal role in cellular homeostasis as well as in the pathogenesis of malignancies and neurodegenerative diseases. While the process of ubiquitylation is well described, a detailed understanding of mechanisms regulating CRLs is still missing. Through their direct interaction with CRLs, p97 and Ubxd7 could potentially be involved in a new mechanism of CRL-regulation or substrate processing. Using tissue culture-based cycloheximide-turnover-assays and knockdowns of Ubxd7 and p97, it was observed that Ubxd7 and p97 seem to alter HIF-1alpha ubiquitylation dependent on the neddylation status of CRLs. Other results from turnover assays and in vitro ubiquitylation assays with a HIF-1alpha peptide also suggest an inhibitory role of Ubxd7 in CRL ubiquitylation reactions. Furthermore, it was shown for the first time that Cullin2VBC substrates HIF-1/2alpha can be degraded independently of Nedd8-E1 activity and CRL-neddylation. It remains unclear, whether either deneddylated CRLs are still able to ubiquitylate HIFs in vivo or if other alternative pathways mediate HIF-degradation while CRLs are deneddylated. Additionally, a cytosolic and C-terminal HIF-1alpha degradation product named HDP-80 was identified using transfection and pulldown experiments. A possible cleavage mechanism and a physiological role for HDP-80 need to be the focus of future investigations. Taken together, these results suggest that Ubxd7 possibly inhibits CRL function and that various CRL-substrates might depend to different degrees on CRL-neddylation. Since neddylation is already a target of pharmacological therapies (MLN4924), it will be of particular interest to determine why and how many CRL-substrates depend on neddylation.

Patient Safety Monitoring in International Laboratories (JHU-SMILE) is a resource at Johns Hopkins University that supports and monitors laboratories in National Institutes of Health-funded international clinical trials. To determine the impact of the JHU-SMILE quality assurance scheme in sub-Saharan African laboratories, we reviewed 40 to 60 months of external quality assurance (EQA) results of the College of American Pathologists (CAP) in these laboratories. We reviewed the performance of 8 analytes: albumin, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine, sodium, WBC, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and the human immunodeficiency virus antibody rapid test. Over the 40- to 60-month observation period, the sub-Saharan laboratories had a 1.63% failure rate, which was 40% lower than the 2011 CAP-wide rate of 2.8%. Seventy-six percent of the observed EQA failures occurred in 4 of the 21 laboratories. These results demonstrate that a system of remote monitoring, feedback, and audits can support quality in low-resource settings, even in places without strong regulatory support for laboratory quality.

The actin cytoskeleton, consisting of the dynamic biopolymer actin and numerous additional regulatory proteins, is essential for many cellular processes. While basic functions of many actin binding proteins have been, it is still elusive how cells regulate the actin cytoskeleton in space and time. Using reconstituted systems, it is shown here that cross-linking proteins slow down the actin kinetics, which allows to couple the structure of an actin assembly with its internal dynamics. Moreover, cross-linked actin structures can passively adapt to mechanical forces, and triggering effects such as changes in pH will affect actin structures according to the present cross-linking proteins. This suggests that cross-linkers not only provide mechanical stability but also fulfill important tasks as regulators of the cytoskeleton. Das Aktin Zytoskelett besteht aus dem Biopolymer Aktin sowie unzähligen zusätzlichen regulatorischen Proteinen und ist für viele fundamentale zelluläre Prozesse essentiell. Obwohl elementare Funktionen von vielen Aktin-bindenden Proteinen identifiziert wurden, ist es immer noch völlig unklar, wie Zellen die präzise Regulierung ihres Zytoskeletts bewerkstelligen. Mit Hilfe von rekonstruierten Systemen wird hier gezeigt, dass Quervernetzerproteine Aktin Filamente stabilisieren, wodurch Zellen die Architektur von Aktin-Strukturen mit ihren dynamischen Eigenschaften koppeln können. Des Weiteren wird gezeigt, dass durch externe Kräfte sowie Variation des pH Wertes die Eigenschaften von Aktin-Netzwerken abhängig von der Art des Quervernetzerproteins modifiziert werden können. Quervernetzer könnten also nicht nur für die mechanische Stabilität der Zelle nötig sein, sondern auch wichtige Funktionen für die Regulation des Zytoskeletts übernehmen.

Background: Clinical laboratories in Botswana have relied entirely on the reference intervals for normal immunohaematological values provided by manufacturers’ kits and textbooks. Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine the means, medians, 2.5th and 97.5th percentile reference intervals, for normal immunohaematological values in healthy adults in Botswana.Method: A total of 261 healthy participants comprising 126 men (48%) and 135 (52%) women were enrolled in the southern part of Botswana, and immunological and haematological laboratory parameters were measured.Results: The mean age was 28.8 (95% Confidence Interval [CI] 27.7–29.8) years, with a median of 27 years and a range 18–66 years. The mean haemoglobin level was significantly lower for women (12.4 g/dL; 95% CI 12.1% – 12.7%) than men (15.1 g/dL; 95% CI 14.9% – 15.3%). The women’s haemoglobin reference values (9.0 g/dL – 15.0 g/dL) levels were lower than observed in predominantly White populations (12.0 g/dL – 16.0 g/dL), but comparable with regional consensus reference intervals (9.5 g/dL – 15.8 g/dL) recently defined for East and Southern Africa.Conclusion: The established values provide an important tool for patient management and could influence decisions on inclusion of participants and adverse events in clinical trials conducted locally.

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