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Code switching, the use of mixed-language expressions, is gaining prominence in advertising targeting linguistic minorities. Two studies investigate the existence of linguistic rules governing the use of code switching and identify situations in which those rules have a greater impact on persuasion. The studies extend Myers-Scotton's 1995 model of code switching by revealing an interaction between linguistic correctness and type of processing. More specifically, breaking the linguistic rules of code switching results in less persuasive messages but only when consumers process the ads in a highly data-driven mode. When consumers do not engage in highly data-driven processing, breaking linguistic rules does not influence persuasion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ponašymu – the mixed language code of Těšín Silesia This article describes the development of the linguistic situation in the border region of Těšín Silesia throughout its history, with particular emphasis on the so-called ponašymu – a mixed language code used in the Czech part of the region. It is based on a random combination of forms of the traditional Těšín dialect with the standard Czech language and, to a lesser extent, elements borrowed from the Polish and Slovak languages and from neighbouring Moravian dialects. An important element of the study is the analysis of selected material collected by the author during fieldwork in August 2018. Ponašymu – mieszany kod językowy czeskiego Śląska Cieszyńskiego Artykuł opisuje rozwój sytuacji językowej w pogranicznym regionie Śląska Cieszyńskiego na przestrzeni dziejów, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem tzw. ponašymu – mieszanego kodu językowego używanego w czeskiej części regionu. Oparty jest on na dowolnym łączeniu form tradycyjnego śląskiego dialektu cieszyńskiego ze standardowym językiem czeskim i w mniejszym stopniu elementami zapożyczonymi z języka polskiego, słowackiego i sąsiednich gwar morawskich. Ważnym elementem pracy jest analiza wybranych materiałów zebranych przeze mnie w trakcie badań terenowych w sierpniu 2018 r.

Looks at the effectiveness of writing and other communication in the library profession. Characteristics of library writing; Syllables that are contained in words used in libraries; Categories of library jargon and obscure language used in libraries; Details on modern specialization; Danger of specialized language to libraries' future.

Contacts between speakers of different languages are a common occurrence, although depending on the efficiency of means of transport and communication they have been of varying intensity throughout history. The nature of the consequences of such contacts can be positive and negative for the languages, while the superior or inferior status of languages in contact determines which of them will suffer one or the other type of consequences. Only the languages of strong communities can overcome the negative aspects of interlanguage contacts. In different historical periods, the Arabic language has been in contact with other languages, has influenced but has also been influenced by some of them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The language policy of Turkey's state-run Kurdish television station (TRT Kurdî) allows for Kurdish-Turkish hybridity, which reflects common practice among Turkish Kurds (Schluter, Anne. 2014. Competing or compatible language identities in Istanbul's Kurmanji workplaces? In Kristina Kamp, Ayhan Kaya, Fuat Keyman & Özge Onursal-Beşgül (eds.), Contemporary Turkey at a Glance. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Local and Trans-local Dynamics, 125–137. Wiesbaden, Germany: Springer.) and promotes ownership among minority language speakers (Hinnenkamp, Volker. 2003. Mixed language varieties of migrant adolescents and the discourse of hybridity. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 24(1–2). 12–41.). Nevertheless, the mixing of Turkish and apparent disregard for Kurdish language rules has led some of the target audience to reject the station (Öpengin, Ergin. 2012. Sociolinguistic situation of Kurdish in Turkey: Sociopolitical factors and language use patterns. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 217. 151–180.). Such attention to form, according to (Lemon, Alaina. 2002. Form and function in Soviet stage Romani: Modeling metapragmatics through performance institutions. Language in Society 31. 29–64.) is usually reserved for minority language activists and dominant language speakers whereas marginalized minority language speakers frequently focus on function. Through semi-structured interviews with twenty politically engaged Kurdish migrants of Istanbul, the current study investigated metalinguistic criticisms about the station to deconstruct perceptions of the suitability of a hybrid Kurdish broadcasting language in relation to findings from (Lemon, Alaina. 2002. Form and function in Soviet stage Romani: Modeling metapragmatics through performance institutions. Language in Society 31. 29–64.) and (Hinnenkamp, Volker. 2003. Mixed language varieties of migrant adolescents and the discourse of hybridity. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 24(1–2). 12–41.). In contrast to (Hinnenkamp, Volker. 2003. Mixed language varieties of migrant adolescents and the discourse of hybridity. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 24(1–2). 12–41.), participants viewed linguistic hybridity on TRT Kurdî as iconic (Irvine, Judith & Susan Gal. 2000. Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In Paul V. Kroskrity (ed.), Regimes of language: ideologies, politics, and identities, 35–84. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.) of the Turkish state's agenda to assimilate its Kurdish population. Furthermore, the transfer of this agenda onto a sub-group within the same in-group, TRT Kurdî's producers, provided evidence of fractal recursivity (Irvine, Judith & Susan Gal. 2000. Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In Paul V. Kroskrity (ed.), Regimes of language: ideologies, politics, and identities, 35–84. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.). Results call for a broadening of Lemon (2002) to allow for the inclusion of a larger portion of minority language-speaking populations whose language, similar to the Istanbul-resident Kurdish community profiled in the current study, has been deeply politicized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Using the methodology of historical sociolinguistics, this article explores multilingualism and language contact in the mines of Potosí (Bolivia) in the colonial period. Potosí was the destination of massive migration during its economic heydays around 1610 and one of the largest cities in the Western hemisphere at the time. In the mines special codes were developed, with a specialized lexicon that contains words from different languages. This lexicon was so different that the first vocabulary of the mining language was written in 1610, and many have followed from that date onward. Quechua most probably played a key role as intermediary language between two forms of speaking: the indigenous mining language of the free workers, yanaconas and mingas, probably a mix of Spanish and Quechua, and the language of the forced workers, mitayos, possibly a mix of Aymara and Quechua. The similarities between Aymara and Quechua must have contributed to this possibility of an intermediary language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper links genderlects and mixed languages. Both may have their roots in a gender dichotomy, where two distinct populations come together and blend into a new one, with different linguistic consequences. Mixed languages are generally assumed to be the result of deliberate or conscious language change and often come about as the result of an act of identity, connected to the birth of a new social or ethnic group. Societies or ethnic groups that are the result of mixed marriages may develop a mixed language or a genderlect. I show that there is a connection between the two, as proven in one specific case: a mixed language developed into a genderlect over several centuries. Typically, mixed languages combine elements from two languages with results that are so unusual that they are clearly not the result of normal language change, i.e. they are not outcomes of regular transmission between generations. Certain combinations found in genderlects show parallel patterns, for example in having personal pronouns or deictic elements that derive from other languages. Comparative evidence based on structural parallels suggests that some such genderlects (though not necessarily all) derive from deliberate changes by earlier generations. In this paper, I also investigate whether there is a link between societies with socially quite different roles for men and women, and societies with a genderlect, and find that such a link does not seem to exist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bull's theorem states that all axiomatic extensions of the modal logic S4.3 have the finite model property. We show that this fails for hybrid logic, by defining an axiomatic extension of the hybrid companion of S4.3, which has only infinite Kripke models. In contrast, by considering hybrid algebraic semantics or, dually, semantics based on two-sorted general frames, we are able to prove analogues of Bull's theorem for two hybrid languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates participation problems in teams with mixed language proficiencies. Utilising an in-depth single case study approach and drawing on interactional data and interviews, it explores participation in team meetings. It takes a positioning theory approach, and analyses how the least proficient speaker is subtly positioned in various ways: as silent, different, difficult and incompetent. It argues that these positionings contribute to the marginalisation of his contributions in team meetings and in effectively silencing him and that this occurred through interactional patterns in which his contributions were a) ignored, b) dismissed outright and c) treated with only token interest. The paper ends by considering the range of factors, both interactional and attitudinal, that seem to have contributed to this silencing, including cultural stereotypes that seem to influence the dynamics of the interactions. • Less-proficient team members are marginalised in intercultural teams. • They are positioned as difficult, different & incompetent independent of expertise. • Contributions are silenced interactionally, excluding them from influencing tasks. • Repetition perpetuates positionings and prevents repositioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After decades of debate in linguistic theory, the lexical/functional status of adpositions is still controversial. Lexicon-Grammar mixed languages such as Media Lengua, spoken in Northern Ecuador, are excellent testing cases for such grammatical categories: This mixed language displays a conservative Quichua morphosyntactic frame while approximately 90% of its lexical roots are relexified from Spanish. Thus, due to the lexical-functional split Media Lengua displays, whether adpositions in this language are realized in Quichua or Spanish can speak to their status as a lexical/functional category. This study reports data from recent field research, conducted with speakers trilingual in Media Lengua, Quichua and Spanish who participated in two tasks (video description and translation). The results show a split between lexical and functional adpositions in Media Lengua, manifested in the dual-language realization of complex (multimorphemic) items: The lexical part of these complex items is relexified from Spanish while the functional part is retained in Quichua – even when participants are structurally primed. This suggests that Media Lengua across communities systematically follows Quichua morphosyntactic rules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper much discussion will be on the formation of a unique identity as a Chinese-American in Maxine Hong Kingston's The Woman Warrior. This unique identity succeeds to link and bridge the two different cultures, the past and the present, the male and the female. It also has the capacity to encompass all sorts of differences and contradictions. The hybrid allusions, the hybrid genre, the blending of facts and fiction, the thematic decentralization, the shifting narrative point of views, the hybrid readers and the hybrid language employed in Kingston's writing all reflect on the erasure of boundaries between the East and the West, the past and the present, the male and the female. Instead of dichotomizing the world, the unique identity as a Chinese-American link and unite things altogether. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What exactly happens to a mixed language’s system in a multilingual contact setting? This study aims to investigate the interactions between speakers’ exposure to, frequency of, and proficiency in four languages (English, Tagalog, Hokkien, and Mandarin) and their influences on the why-fronting only wh-question system of Lánnang-uè, a mixed language used by the metropolitan Manila Lannangs. It also aims to test the validity of the assertion that symbiotic mixed languages are more likely to be in flux.The Lánnang-uè speakers participated in production and acceptability experiments.Likelihood to front (production) and responses to a 7-point Likert-type scale (acceptability) were the dependent variables for several Bayesian linear mixed-effects models with age, frequency of language use, and language proficiency as primary fixed effects, sociolinguistic factors (e.g., attitudes, identity) as covariates, and participant (and when appropriate, item) as a random effect.Both production and acceptability results showed that the effects of contact are numerous and far from homogeneous. They vary depending on the source language, wh-phrase type, and degree of consciousness. They corroborate the widely held belief that mixed languages are less stable in symbiotic contexts. However, this paper goes an extra step to show that this “instability” or variability is not always a consequence of contact-induced transfer. It demonstrates that when the source languages influence the stability or development of the mixed language, the effects can be diverse, encompassing aspects such as identity processes, language attitudes, structural transfer, and/or other sociolinguistic innovations.This article is one of the first studies to examine the effects of contact between multiple languages on a mixed language variable using both production and acceptability experimental data in a five-language context. It is one of the very few variationist works in the Philippines that considers the effects of multilingualism on variation and change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose With the increasing number of online multilingual resources, cross-language information retrieval (CLIR) has drawn much attention from the information retrieval (IR) research community. However, few studies have examined how and why multilingual searchers seek information in two or more languages, specifically how they switch and mix language in queries to get satisfying results. The purpose of this paper is to focus on Chinese–English bilinguals' intra-sentential code-switching behaviors in online searches. The scenarios and reasons of code-switching, factors that may affect code-switching, the patterns of mixed language query formulation and reformulation and how current IR systems and other search tools can facilitate such information needs were examined.Design/methodology/approach In-depth semi-structured interviews were used as the research method. In total, 30 participants were recruited based on their English proficiency, location and profession, using a purposive sampling method.Findings Four scenarios and four reasons for using Chinese–English mixed language queries to cover information needs were identified, and results suggest that linguistic and cultural/social factors are of equivalent importance in code-switching behaviors. English terms and Chinese terms in queries play different roles in searches, and mixed language queries are irreplaceable by either single language queries or other search facilitating features. Findings also suggest current search engines and tools need greater emphasis in the user interface and more user education is required.Originality/value This study presents a qualitative analysis of bilinguals' code-switching behaviors in online searches. Findings are expected to advance the theoretical understanding of bilingual users' search strategies and interactions with IR systems, and provide insights for designing more effective IR systems and tools to discover multilingual online resources, including cross-language controlled vocabularies, personalized CLIR tools and mixed language query assistants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the contribution of Japanese to the formation of seven contact languages including Yokohama Pidgin Japanese; Yilan Creole; and the Ogasawara Mixed Language. Topics discussed include information on the phonological interpretation of the system of transcription used in the few written records of Yokohama Pidgin Japanese; discussions on the inter-speaker variation in the Yokohama Pidgin Japanese.

For a long period in history, the border between Russian Empire and China was a place of constant and intensive cultural and language contacts, which resulted in the emergence of the Russian-Chinese Pidgin. In the 19th century it was used by no less than one million people around the border with China, in an area of more than 3,000 kilometers long. The grammatical analysis of Russian-Chinese Pidgin reveals several features (e.g. using the imperative as a basic verb form), which can be interpreted not only linguistically but sociologically as well, because they are intertwined with the social positions of the contact groups and their attitudes towards each other. Interestingly, features found in the pidgin's grammar have certain parallels in foreigner-directed talk used nowadays by Russian speakers when communicating with Chinese speakers in the border area, which may indicate there are rather stable linguistic stereotypes associated with these contact situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the linguistic landscape (LL) of a semi-informal market in a South African township called Soshanguve. The fieldsite is situated in an area that is characterized by diversity and longstanding multilingualism. An ethnographic approach draws on the semiotic reading of the LL by a participant whose analysis of the multilingual commercial signage provides insight into local perceptions on language use and materiality. The study focuses on the participant’s analysis of the indexicality of African languages and traders’ names used in the LL that is in general dominated by English. Furthermore, the use of Sepitori (mixed language) in the signage will be explored for the first time. Findings contribute to disentangle and expand the notion of luxury and necessity. More specifically, we suggest that these concepts can be extended to include the notions of sponsorship and mediation, which can potentially involve reinterpreting the process of production, use and perception of the materials in signage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the creolisation of the Caribbean and the Irish in the Caribbean, and proposes that comparisons of the Caribbean and Ireland can be productively approached through study of their English vernaculars. Topics discussed include explanation of Hilary Beckles, researcher of Irish indentureship in the Caribbean, about Irish-British conflicts, complications and contradictions about the story of the Irish in the Caribbean, and Irish linguistic influence in the Caribbean.

This article focuses on the history of the linguistic exchange between Romani and the autochthonous languages of the Iberian Peninsula, and on the studies in this field. Over the last 600 years, Romani has entirely disappeared, leaving marks in the evolution of mixed languages, the so-called Calós. A handful of lexemes in Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan are the only remnants of a long shared history of social (and linguistic) exclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 2nd language proficiency and linguistic uncertainty on performance and listening effort in mixed language contexts. Method: Thirteen native speakers of Dutch with varying degrees of fluency in English listened to and repeated sentences produced in both Dutch and English and presented in the presence of single-talker competing speech in both Dutch and English. Target and masker language combinations were presented in both blocked and mixed (unpredictable) conditions. In the blocked condition, in each block of trials the target--masker language combination remained constant, and the listeners were informed of both prior to beginning the block. In the mixed condition, target and masker language varied randomly from trial to trial. All listeners participated in all conditions. Performance was assessed in terms of speech reception thresholds, whereas listening effort was quantified in terms of pupil dilation. Results: Performance (speech reception thresholds) and listening effort (pupil dilation) were both affected by 2nd language proficiency (English test score) and target and masker language: Performance was better in blocked as compared to mixed conditions, with Dutch as compared to English targets, and with English as compared to Dutch maskers. English proficiency was correlated with listening performance. Listeners also exhibited greater peak pupil dilation in mixed as compared to blocked conditions for trials with Dutch maskers, whereas pupil dilation during preparation for speaking was higher for English targets as compared to Dutch ones in almost all conditions. Conclusions: Both listener's proficiency in a 2nd language and uncertainty about the target language on a given trial play a significant role in how bilingual listeners attend to speech in the presence of competing speech in different languages, but precise effects also depend on which language is serving as target and which as masker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mexican Spanish is generally recognized as a conservative variety that maintains syllablefinal /s/, while Puerto Rican Spanish consistently weakens it. To explore what social properties are indexed by coda /s/ variants and whether these variants alone can alter evaluations of speaker origin, 75 Mexican listeners participated in a matched-guise test. They listened to recordings of five Mexican and Puerto Rican Spanish speakers spliced to include only coda [s] or coda [h], evaluating speakers on a scale of social properties and identifying their perceived place of origin. Mixed effects models fitted to 6,750 evaluations demonstrate that [s] is associated with various measures of status, including intelligence, work ethic, confidence, and snobbishness. However, these evaluations are conditioned by listeners’ stereotypes and regional expectations, as Mexicans were evaluated as speaking better Spanish when presented with [s] and Puerto Ricans as speaking better Spanish with [h]. Finally, listeners evaluated Puerto Rican voices as significantly more Mexican given coda [s] and Mexican voices as significantly more Caribbean given coda [h], with the most drastic shift for Mexican speakers. The paper concludes that manipulating a single salient variable (/s/) is sufficient to override other linguistic features, which play a much more limited role in social identification and evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates, from the residents’ viewpoint, perceptions on the role and usage of Sepitori, a mixed language which originated in greater Pretoria (South Africa). Based on the thematic coding of two focus group interviews (18 participants in total), our data show that although Sepitori acts as a salient urban marker, important differences are observed between insiders (brought up in greater Pretoria) and outsiders (brought up outside greater Pretoria). While insiders corroborated that Sepitori is the L1 of many residents regardless of their age or social status, outsiders tended to regard Sepitori as any combination of languages associated with stereotypical features of gangsterism and Tsotsitaal. Significantly, testimonies underlined a prevalent use of this variety in a growing number of social contexts due to its important role in facilitating intergroup communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on the analysis of morphologically induced new hybrid blending patterns in Spanish due to the influence and contact with English. Our data-driven approach does not separate word creation from grammatical phenomena but considers hybrid blends – a completely new emerging pattern itself in Spanish – as the output of speakers’ or users’ word creativity and manipulation that may be subject to morphological laws. However, the limited number of existing examples as well as the understandable lack of records for such recent data led us to analyze them in terms of tendencies and probabilities. We pay special attention to the ordering of the source words according to foreign or native origin; the presence of full forms and the distribution of full words and splinters, clipping and overlapping of the source words, as well as the semantic patterns and relations between the source words. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the start of the twentieth century, a movement began to dismantle Haiti's entrenched linguistic hierarchy. Haitian writers started using Creole in their works of literature in order to contest the notion that the language was unfit for written and formal contexts. Such a linguistic revolution, it was believed, would allow Haiti's long-neglected monolingual masses to participate in public life. The emergent Creole movement, however, came to an abrupt end with the onset of the US Occupation in 1915. Haitian intellectuals opted to cling to their French cultural heritage as a way of contesting the validity of the Americans' supposedly civilizing mission, and the Creole project was shelved. As it turned out, the Americans had their own reasons for expanding the use of Creole, and they contributed greatly to building an infrastructure for the language. Their actions, however, provoked widespread opposition and undermined their own work on the Creole question. The cause of language legitimation, much like Haitian democracy itself, ultimately regressed under the Occupation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public signs nowadays can be seen everywhere and applied in various public areas, the purpose of which is to provide some necessary indicative information for the international tourists or workers, facilitate their life and work, and also attract foreign investments. However, not all the bilingual public signs are translated appropriately, the quality of current translation is not very satisfactory owing to some internal and external reasons, thus the consequence of this inappropriate language using in public signs brought about the so-called Chinglish phenomenon, Chinglish is that misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but can be described as English with Chinese characteristics, usually is unintelligible to the foreigners, which hinders the development of translation for communicating with foreigners. The thesis mainly concerns the causes of the emergence of Chinglish public signs which will be discussed from the cultural and linguistic dimensions in terms of various examples, the rest of the content will talk about the normal standard of Chinese-English sign language translation for eliminating Chinglish and attaining an unimpeded and efficient translation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper will examine one of the most characteristic syntactic properties of languages, namely the case system for the following three Sinitic languages spoken in Northwestern China: Línxià (or Hézhōu), Tāngwāng, Gāngōu, which have been sometimes viewed as 'mixed languages'. An answer to the following main questions will be tentatively suggested in the conclusion: do we really have case suffixes in these languages (cases are a morphological notion) or simply thematic roles expressed by postpositions (thematic roles are a semantic notion)? Do we really have a Qinghai-Gansu linguistic area (Sprachbund), as has been suggested? Can these Sinitic languages be characterized as being mixed languages? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report a right-handed patient with a massive lesion in left perisylvian language cortex, who unexpectedly presented with fluent aphasia with semantic jargon. Language deficits were assessed with a comprehensive battery of language tests. Comprehension, naming, reading, and writing were severely impaired, and verbal expression was moderately fluent with semantic jargon. Although the patient's lesion included brain areas typically essential for motor speech coordination, he was neither nonfluent nor apraxic. He exhibited strikingly unexpected aphasia with semantic jargon and prominent comprehension deficits, suggesting that this is a case of mixed dominance: the right hemisphere likely controls motor speech and basic syntactic skills, while the severely damaged left hemisphere controls semantic processing, predictably severely impaired. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starting with reflections on the genealogical and formal issues surrounding Caribbean fiction, Robert Antoni provides in this article an introduction to his latest book, As Flies to Whatless Boys (2013). The focus is very much on the formally experimental aspects of this historical novel, notably its use of the vernacular but also the creative ways in which it exploits digital resources to implicate the reader in the extraordinary adventures it narrates and thereby challenge some of the limitations of the genre. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current paper deals with the challenges presented by the competition in wordformation regarding the Bulgarian-Greek substantive hybrids. These are formations which have emerged on the basis of elements borrowed from Greek, aided by Bulgarian wordformative formants (mostly suffi xes and more rarely prefi xes). The article presents the cases of competition in word-formation, regarding the simple and composite hybrid formations. The examples provided here are part of a broader research that covers material from the whole linguistic area. The cases of suffi x competition are studied in the framework of the separate word-formative categories they are part of, following the ideas postulated in the word-formation theory of the Czech linguist M. Dokulil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on Francoprovençal (FP) from the perspective of language contact, specifically the reciprocal effects between FP and two dialects of German (Alemannic) spoken in the Aosta region and belonging to the severely endangered Walser minority group located in Northwestern Italy. On the basis of lexical evidence we describe a complex dynamics of language contact among communities embedded in one another. We found bidirectional exchanges between FP and one Walser variety, but much less so with the other. As a result, lexical distance revealed a pattern of contact, isolation and asymmetries that contrasts with geographical distance or more general relations of sociolinguistic dominance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The language practices of Latinos in the US continue to attract attention from politicians, educators, journalists, linguists and the general Hispanic and non-Hispanic public. While monolingual speakers of English in the US expect Hispanics to shift to English like other minority language speakers have done in the past, monolingual speakers of Spanish expect them to speak "pure" Spanish. Even Spanish-English bilingual speakers criticize Latinos for mixing Spanish and English or speaking Spanglish. This term has been rejected by some linguists who claim that it is technically flawed and only applies to casual oral registers. In this paper I consider the linguistic nature, sociolinguistic functions and attitudes towards Spanglish, I show that Latinos are using this hybrid, heteroglossic variety beyond casual oral registers, and I suggest a broader perspective which not only considers the linguistic features of Spanglish but also the political, social and cultural issues involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One critical assumption that Salikoko Mufwene (2017) makes about the field of language endangerment and loss is that linguists engaged in language endangerment, documentation and revitalization are concerned with indigenous languages, which naturally leaves out nonindigenous languages. This response concerns itself with addressing this assumption, with a focus on a particular group of nonindigenous languages. It provides insight on the levels of endangerment of pidgins, creoles and mixed languages for which we have information and considers some reasons why it is important to focus on the endangerment and loss of these types of nonindigenous languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Speech emotion recognition continues to attract a lot of research especially under mixed-language scenarios. Here, we show that emotion is language dependent and that enhanced emotion recognition systems can be built when the language is known. We propose a two-stage emotion recognition system that starts by identifying the language, followed by a dedicated language-dependent recognition system for identifying the type of emotion. The system is able to recognize accurately the four main types of emotion, namely neutral, happy, angry, and sad. These types of emotion states are widely used in practical setups. To keep the computation complexity low, we identify the language using a feature vector consisting of energies from a basic wavelet decomposition. A hidden Markov model (HMM) is then used to track the changes of this vector to identify the language, achieving recognition accuracy close to 100%. Once the language is identified, a set of speech processing features including pitch and MFCCs are used with a neural network (NN) architecture to identify the emotion type. The results show that that identifying the language first can substantially improve the overall accuracy in identifying emotions. The overall accuracy achieved with the proposed system reached more than 93%. To test the robustness of the proposed methodology, we also used a Gaussian mixture model (GMM) for both language identification and emotion recognition. Our proposed HMM-NN approach showed a better performance than the GMM-based approach. More importantly, we tested the proposed algorithm with 6 emotions which are showed that the overall accuracy continues to be excellent, while the performance of the GMM-based approach deteriorates substantially. It is worth noting that the performance we achieved is close to the one attained for single language emotion recognition systems and outperforms by far recognition systems without language identification (around 60%). The work shows the strong correlation between language and type of emotion, and can further be extended to other scenarios including gender-based, facial expression-based, and age-based emotion recognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper intends to explore the phonological features of Arabi-Malayalam based on the Arabi-Malayalam prose and poetry. The study evaluates the peculiarities in the phonological treatment of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian loan words in this mixed language. It aims mainly at exploring the phonological modifications undergone in the loan words and the particular patterns, if any in such incorporation. The analysis reveals that the Arabi-Malayalam utilized and preserved several Proto-Dravidian phonological processes for the assimilation of loanwords. Highly sanskritized modern standard Malayalam has given up several such features. The study concludes that the Arabi-Malayalam has devised its own de-clustering pattern in the incorporation of loan words. As a result of these processes, drastic changes have been made in the surface structure of loan words and the root forms of such words are difficult to be identified. The phonological features of these words and usages are analyzed in order to bring new lights in understanding linguistic features of this Arabi-Malayalam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The phenomena of pidgin and creole languages have turned out to be significant fertile grounds for research and speculation on the constitution, evolution, and acquisition of language. The purpose of this paper is to examine Derek Bickerton's Language Bioprogramme Hypothesis specifically in the context of the debate between nativist and non-nativist theories on the emergence of language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It was recently claimed, in the International Journal of the Sociology of Language (Issue 242) that the Bildt dialect in Friesland (Netherlands), spoken from the sixteenth century in a region reclaimed from the sea, poses a specimen of so-called "mixed languages", characterised by a split between the source language of the "grammar" (from Frisian) and that of the "lexicon" (from Dutch). This article evaluates the linguistic arguments and poses a rather different conclusion to that above. Many of the grammatical similarities between Frisian and the Bildt dialect are not the result of borrowing or imposition from Frisian, but are (a) shared innovations in Frisian and Dutch based varieties in Friesland (including the Bildt dialect) in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, (b) commonly preserved archaisms, and (c) the result of the convergence of Frisian with Dutch. It is suggested that all early-modern language varieties spoken in Friesland were part of a Sprachbund, that also comprised the vernaculars of North Holland, under the umbrella of the emerging Standard Dutch. This different linguistic interpretation makes the sociolinguistic argument of identity-driven language mixing obsolete, because such a mixing never took place. It can, however, be acknowledged that the current shape of some Dutchbased varieties in Friesland can synchronically be re-analysed in terms of being "mixed languages". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we demonstrate ways in which teachers, working within the context of rapidly changing demographics in our country, can create inclusive classroom environments that promote the development of engineering literacies and identities, particularly among bilingual students. We draw on our experience working with two projects funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Minority Science and Engineering Improvement Program (MSEIP) at a large public university on the U.S.-Mexico border to show how educators can create educational spaces that encourage bilingual students to use their full communicative repertoires in developing engineering discourses and identities. In so doing, we highlight the relationship between bilingualism and disciplinary literacy development; describe how hybrid language practices such as translanguaging can contribute to engineering learning; and highlight the role of identities in disciplinary discourses. The practices illustrated in this article have implications not only for college instructors, but also for teachers at the secondary level. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The idea of narrative hybridity was central to the work of the Russian literary theorist Alexander Veselovsky (1838 - 1906), particularly to his unfinished work Historical Poetics. For Veselovsky and the Russian theorists who followed him, including Mikhail Bakhtin and Yuri M. Lotman, the boundary rather than the center is the site of hybridization and thus literary and cultural transformation. This article argues that this model of hybridization on the border can point in the direction of a synthesis between the theoretical impulse of contemporary attempts to conceive of a world literary system, with their scale and their concern with models of circulation, and those of postcolonial criticism and creolization theory, with their focus on hybridization and literary and cultural transformation on the periphery and mistrust of centripetal accounts of literary and cultural history. The article examines how Veselovsky's account of the role of narrative tradition and narrative hybridization on the periphery demonstrates the potential of geographic borderlands and periods of historical transition and borderline genres and is a useful touchstone for the work of scholars arguing for the redefinition of traditional understandings of center and periphery in literary history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the relationship between intra-sentential codeswitching restrictions after subject pronouns, negative elements, and interrogatives and language-specific syntactic structures. Data are presented from two languages that have non-cognate lexicons but share identical phrase structure and syntactic mechanisms and exactly the same grammatical morphemes except for pronouns, negators, and interrogative words. The languages are the Quichua of Imbabura province, Ecuador and Ecuadorian Media Lengua (ML), consisting of Quichua morphosyntax with Spanish-derived lexical roots. Bilingual participants carried out un-timed acceptability judgment and language-identification tasks and concurrent memory-loaded repetition on utterances in Quichua, ML, and various mixtures of Quichua and ML. The acceptability and classification data show a main effect for category of single-word switches (significant differences for lexical vs. interrogative, negative, and for acceptability, pronoun) and repetition data show significant differences between lexical vs. interrogatives and negators. Third-person pronouns (which require an explicit antecedent) also differ significantly from lexical items. Logical-semantic factors may contribute to code-switching restrictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, I demonstrate how hybrid language practices allow for children to make use of their full linguistic repertoire in negotiating the social and communicative demands of the school environment (Axelrod in Early Child Educ J, p 1-8, 2014). I argue that the unusual case of classe LSF and École Maternelle Gabriel Sajus directly challenges mainstream progressive assumptions of inclusion that effectively exclude deaf children from their deaf peers. Current so-called progressive models of inclusion often isolate deaf learners in mainstream classroom settings with non-deaf classmates and adults. Classe LSF and École Maternelle Gabriel Sajus offers insights for rethinking inclusion in early childhood classrooms in the ways that it provokes us to consider the inclusive potential of hybrid linguistic spaces for bilingual learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gurindji Kriol, a mixed language spoken in northern Australia, combines a Kriol VP with a Gurindji NP, including case suffixes (Meakins 2011a). The Gurindjiderived case suffixes have undergone a number of changes in Gurindji Kriol, for example the ergative suffix -ngku/-tu now marks nominative case (Meakins 2011b, 2015). This study explores a new innovation in case morphology among Gurindji Kriol-speaking children: the use of -ngku/-tu to mark possessors as well as subjects, i.e. the emergence of a relative case system. Although rare in Australian languages, syncretism between agents and possessors is not uncommon cross-linguistically, reported in Caucasian Eskimo-Aleut, Mixe-Zoquean and Yucatecan-Mayan languages (Allen 1964; Blake 1994; Palancar 2002). In the case of Gurindji Kriol, the relative case system found its origins in allomorphic reduction which led to syncretism between ergative and dative case forms. This syncretism was shaped by the syntactic grouping of subjects and possessors as dependents of verbs and possessums, respectively. Although partial syncretism between ergative and dative case is not unusual in Australian languages historically, it has gone to completion in Gurindji Kriol and can be observed in two other instances of rapid linguistic change in Australia: Ngiyambaa (Donaldson 1980) and Dyirbal (Schmidt 1985). The re-organisation of the case system can be traced back to a small group of second-generation Gurindji Kriol speakers at Nitjpurru (Pigeon Hole) and this change has since been transmitted laterally through familial connections to other children at Daguragu. There are also indications that it has begun propagating to other children at Kalkaringi and is now being acquired by the next generation of Gurindji Kriol speakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of mixed languages in daily conversations, referred to as “code-switching”, has become a common linguistic phenomenon among bilingual/multilingual communities. Code-switching involves the alternating use of distinct languages or “codes” at sentence boundaries or within the same sentence. With the rise of globalization, code-switching has become prevalent in daily conversations, especially among urban youth. This lead to an increasing demand on automatic speech recognition systems to be able to handle such mixed speech. In this paper, we present the first steps towards building a multilingual language model (LM) for code-switched Arabic-English. One of the main challenges faced when building a multilingual LM is the need of explicit mixed text corpus. Since code-switching is a behaviour used more commonly in spoken than written form, text corpora with code-switching are usually scarce. Therefore, the first aim of this paper is to introduce a code-switch Arabic-English text corpus that is collected by automatically downloading relevant documents from the web. The text is then extracted from the documents and processed to be useable by NLP tasks. For language modeling, a baseline LM was built from existing monolingual corpora. The baseline LM gave a perplexity of 11841.9 and Out-of-Vocabulary (OOV) rate of 4.07%. The gathered code-switch Arabic-English corpus, along with the existing monolingual corpora were then used to construct several LMs. The best LM achieved a great improvement over the baseline LM, with a perplexity of 275.41 and an OOV rate of 0.71%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]