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The aim of this research project is to provide basic information regarding the use of substances and its behavioral consequences such as health problems and criminal offences. It is the first survey in Greece in the field of self-help groups. The main research instrument was a 55-item ques- tionnaire that was administered to members of NA and AA in the Greek cities of Athens, Thessaloniki, Serres, Nafplio, liaklio, and Katerini. This article presents an analysis of the answers given by the respondents to 12 of the 55 items of the questionnaire. It also includes a comparison of the relevant findings with data provided by the central organizations of AA and NA as well as by official therapeutic programs in Greece and by other researchers who have studied the same subject. More specifically, this article presents, examines and analyzes data which focuses on: (a) the age at which a substance was first used, (b) the time it took the individual respondents to acknowledge such use as a problem, (c) the main substance abused at the onset, (d) the main substance in use when the individuals approached the self-help group, (e) the existence or not of another individual with a substance abuse disorder in the immediate family, (1) possible health problems and (g) the entanglement or not with the penal justice system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The present experiment assessed whether preadolescent exposure to methamphetamine would alter adult behavioral responses to cocaine and dopamine transporter immunoreactivity in the striatum of male and female rats. Juvenile rats were injected once daily with 0 or 2mg/kg methamphetamine from postnatal days 21 to 35 and tested in adulthood. Male rats, but not female rats, exposed to methamphetamine showed an increase in responsiveness to cocaine in the open field and an increase in dopamine transporter immunoreactivity in the striatum. These findings suggest that early exposure to methamphetamine can lead to sex specific altered responses to psychostimulants in adulthood, which may contribute to later vulnerability to drug use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Marijuana is the most widely used illegal drug, and the use of marijuana has been linked to a wide array of maladaptive outcomes. As a result, there is great interest in identifying the factors that are associated with the use of marijuana and with desistance from marijuana. The current study employed a life-course framework to examine the factors associated with early onset of marijuana use, with the use of marijuana during adolescence, and with desistance from marijuana use in young adulthood. Analysis of data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health revealed that low self-control and delinquent peers were predictive of marijuana use, an early onset of marijuana use, and desistance from marijuana use. In addition, the models revealed that marriage increased the odds of desistance from marijuana use, even after controlling for delinquent peers, low self-control, and selection effects. The implications of our findings are noted. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

52 ketamine users were 'opportunistically' recruited to take part in a survey of the psychological effects of the drug, in Manchester, United Kingdom in 2008. Twenty-seven ketamine-naïve respondents were also recruited for comparison in respect of 'other' recreational drug use and level of schizotypy. Ketamine users attributed a wide range of appetitive, aversive, after-effect, and dissociative experiences to the drug. They also reported using a much wider range of other recreational drugs than ketamine non-users. Former users reported significantly fewer positive or dissociative experiences than current users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-sectional data were collected on a sample of 259 gay and bisexual, male-identified individuals as part of a larger study of the psychosocial functioning of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons. Analyses considered differences between HIV-positive and HIV-negative men in relation to active and religious coping strategies; avoidant coping strategies (specifically, illicit drug use); and the psychosocial states of anxiety, hostility, and depression in relation to self-reported HIV-status of the participants. As compared with HIV-negative men, the HIV positive participants indicated a greater likelihood of engaging in illicit substance use within the previous 3 months, as well as higher levels of both active and religious coping strategies. Illicit substance use also was found to be related to higher levels of depression, anxiety, and hostility. A multivariate model indicated a significant difference in substance-based and active coping strategies among the men surveyed, with persons with a self-reported HIV-positive serostatus endorsing higher levels of both strategies. These results and their implications for prevention and future research are discussed, rooted in the understanding that a complex reality for coping is often enacted by HIV-positive men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shame is an affect common to many pathological as well as nonpathological states. It is rarely described in academic psychiatry, and the reasons are probably more sociocultural than physiologic or scientific. Whether identified as shame or termed something else altogether, it is often the target of effective therapies addressing anxiety, depression, substance abuse, personality conflicts, and even delusions. It is particularly common within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) populations given the difficulties of confronting and accepting the self. Using a clinical case experienced by a psychiatry resident trainee as a framework, this paper explores the phenomenon of shame as a common pathway to several psychiatric diagnoses within the same patient. Psychodynamic aspects of the patient's relationships with family members, his interactions with the resident, and the resident's countertransferential reactions are explored as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which examined the association of discrimination, violence, drug abuse among a cohort of young men who have sex with men (YMSM) from Los Angeles, California. A venue-based, stratified probability sampling design which utilized audio computer-assisted interview (ACAI) in both English and Spanish, was used to assess childhood hardships, violence, discrimination, and drug use is discussed. Analysis showed that financial hardships, physical violence from intimate partners, and homophobia increases the risk for drug use. It also indicated that racial/ethnic YMSM were at increased risk for discrimination and violence leading them to resort to drugs.

The study aims to estimate the prevalence and predictors of not following the gateway theory. Respondents were selected from a multistage stratified clustered sampling of households in five of Nigeria's six geopolitical regions. Interviews were conducted between February 2002 and May 2003 using the CIDI-version.3 with a total sample size ( N) of 2,143. Cumulative incidence proportions of not following a gateway pattern were estimated with SUDAAN. Predictors of this were estimated using multivariate logistic regression models. The deviation from the normative sequence of drug use occurs albeit infrequently. The public health implications of this are discussed as well as the limitations of the findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: Chronic conditions may be associated with suicide risk. This study aimed to specify the extent to which youth chronic conditions are at risk for suicidality and self-harm. METHODS: Logistic regression was used to estimate odds of self-harm, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts in 10-to 19-year-olds with and without chronic physical and/or mental health conditions. RESULTS: Independent of race, socioeconomic status, absent parent, special education status, substance use, and emotional distress, youth with co-occurring chronic physical and mental conditions (n = 4099) had significantly higher odds of self-harm (odds ratio [OR]: 2.5 [99% confidence interval (CD: 2.3-2.8), suicidal ideation (OR: 2.5 [99% Cl: 2.3-2.8), and suicide attempts (OR: 3.5 [99% Cl: 3.1-3.9]) than healthy peers (n = 106 967), as did those with chronic mental conditions alone (n = 8752). Youth with chronic physical conditions alone (n = 12554) were at slightly elevated risk for all 3 outcomes. Findings were similar among male and female youth, with a risk gradient by grade. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic physical conditions are associated with a slightly elevated risk for self-harm, suicidal thinking, and attempted suicide; chronic mental conditions are associated with an increased risk for all 3 outcomes. Co-occurring chronic physical and mental conditions are associated with an increased risk for self-harm and suicidal ideation that is similar to the risk in chronic mental conditions and with an attempted suicide risk in excess of that predicted by the chronic mental health conditions alone. Preventive interventions for these youth should be developed and evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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K-means clustering techniques were used to identify four cluster profiles characterized by unique patterns of victimization and psychological distress and further differentiated by distinct patterns of risk and protection across multiple life domains among a sample of 149 crack-using women. Results of this study suggest that important differences exist in patterns of victimization and psychological distress among drug-involved women. Identifi cation of this variation can be used to tailor intervention strategies to the particular needs of different subgroups within the population of crack-using women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field study to assess the concurrence of the psychopathology of drug addiction, and to evaluate the efficacy of pharmacological treatment versus drug-free treatments for the psychopathology of drug addiction. A total of 261 patients treated for drug addiction, 131 on a drug-free treatment and the remaining 130 patients received a drug regime, of which 113 were, according to the Prochaska and Decrement's Transtheorical Model, in a initial phase of the treatment (from 15 days to 6 months of treatment) and 148 in a maintenance phase in drug treatment (> 6 months), were psychopathologically assessed using the SCL-90-R (Derogatis, 2002). A field study with a 2 X 2 design (treatment: drug-free vs. drug-regime) and (treatment phase: initial phase vs. maintenance in drug treatment) was carried out. The results support the hypothesis of a dual diagnosis, that is, the comorbidity of psychopathology and drug addiction. On the whole, treatment for drug addiction had a significant impact on reducing associated psychopathology. Finally, the results are discussed in the light of the implications for the treatment of drug addiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Illicit methamphetamine abuse represents a major problem in many countries worldwide, including the United States. Prolonged regular smoking or injection of methamphetamine can cause a psychosis, typically characterized by paranoid delusions and auditory hallucinations and often associated with disturbances in mood. These symptoms may persist long after methamphetamine is discontinued and may prove refractory to antipsychotic medications. The authors describe a patient who developed a typical methamphetamine psychosis that persisted despite months of abstinence from methamphetamine and weeks of treatment with antipsychotic medication but that responded promptly to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) on two separate occasions: on initial presentation and again a year later when the patient relapsed into methamphetamine abuse and developed psychosis again. The authors review the large international literature on methamphetamine psychosis, much of which is from Japan and has not previously been summarized in English. Persistent methamphetamine psychosis has been widely reported in Japan for more than 50 years but is rarely discussed in the American literature, possibly because some such cases are misdiagnosed in the United States as primary psychotic disorders. Given the growing public health problem of methamphetamine abuse in the United States, the distinction between persistent methamphetamine psychosis and a primary psychotic disorder has grown increasingly important. Thus, American clinicians should be alert to the possibility of methamphetamine psychosis and may wish to consider ECT in refractory cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is not a usual venture to review experiments conducted decades ago in the context of interests of that time and replace them in a long-term historical perspective. These investigations were the product of a long-standing interest for individual differences in vulnerabilities relative to coping with stressful situations and for potential pathological conditions such as drug abuse. The rationale was, and still is, to decipher the psychobiological characteristics of these complex traits. Original article abstract: stress- and pharmacologically-induced behavioral sensitization increases vulnerability to acquisition of amphetamine self-administration Individual vulnerability to drug addiction may be an important factor in the prognosis of pathological behavior in man. However, experimental investigations have largely neglected the psychobiological substrate of predisposition to addiction. In this study, we use a self-administration (SA) acquisition paradigm showing that previous repeated exposure to a stressful experience (tail-pinch) or to amphetamine increases the locomotor response to this drug (behavioral sensitization) and enhances vulnerability to amphetamine SA. These results show that vulnerability to developing amphetamine SA may be influenced by stressful experiences, and that previous contact with the drug may also enhance a predisposition to amphetamine-taking behavior. As tail-pinch and amphetamine sensitization affect both the dopamine (DA) neural system and the propensity to self-administer amphetamine (a behavior also modulated by DA activity), stress may influence SA via an action on the DA system. © 1990. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:50th Anniversary Issue . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The family is the main agent of risk and protection of drug use at younger ages, especially the family emocional climate factor. Expressed emotion (EE) is a concept reflecting the emotional atmosphere of the home environment. Specific components of EE, criticism, hostility and emotional over-involvement, they are important predictors of relapse in different pathologies and drug abuse. The main aim of this work is to describe the EE and examine the role of the concept in drug use in young people. In conclusion, the EE is a relevant measure, which needs to be evaluated, in drug use at young ages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cognitive changes due to crack cocaine consumption remain unclear. Methods: For clarification, 55 subjects were assigned to three groups: control group, crack cocaine current users, and ex-users. Participants were submitted to Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and tasks evaluating executive functioning and verbal memory. Mood state was also measured. Intergroup comparisons were carried out. Results: Control group performance on the MMSE was better than that of users and ex-users. Verbal memory performance for logical memory of users was impaired. Ex-users scored lower on DSST and Trail Making Test (Part B). Conclusion: Chronic crack cocaine use seems to disrupt general cognitive functioning (MMSE), verbal memory, and attentional resources, but findings suggest that some of these effects could be reversed by abstinence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A random sample of visitors of dance events, clubs, and rock festivals in Belgium (Flanders) was selected to complete an anonymous survey regarding their use of “party” drugs (alcohol, cannabis, xtc, cocaine, and amphetamines) and patterns of going out. The results of 670 respondents recruited in 2005 are reported and compared with 2003 for gender and age. Drug use in these nightlife settings is higher than in the general population. In younger age groups, the illegal drug use increases, but it decreases in older age groups. This might be linked to more responsibilities. Men still use drugs more often than women, but the gender differences seem to decrease. The changing role of women in society could be an explanation for this evolution. Limitations and implications of this research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined longitudinal patterns of initiating substance use and sexual intercourse among a sample of 1,143 high school students from a low-income township in Cape Town, South Africa. Longitudinal data on lifetime incidence of sexual intercourse and alcohol and marijuana use were collected semiannually from 2004 to 2006. Latent transition analysis (LTA) was used to test competing models of transitions to these behaviors. Participants were more likely to move from no risk behavior to substance use, rather than from no risk behavior to sexual intercourse. At all time points, the proportion of youth who had engaged in sexual intercourse but not substance use was very small. The study's limitations and directions for future research are discussed. This research was funded by NIH Grants R01 DA01749 and T32 DA017629-01A1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of spirituality, religiosity and self-efficacy with drug and/or alcohol cravings. A cross-sectional survey was completed by 77 male participants at an Australian Salvation Army residential rehabilitation service in 2007. The survey included questions relating to the participants' drug and/or alcohol use and also measures for spirituality, religiosity, cravings, and self-efficacy. The sample included participants aged between 19 and 74 years, with more than 57% reporting a diagnosis for a mental disorder and 78% reporting polysubstance misuse with alcohol most frequently endorsed as the primary drug of concern (71%). Seventy-five percent of the clients reported that spirituality and religious faith were useful components of the treatment program. A multivariate multiple regression analysis identified that spirituality and self-efficacy have significant relationships with cravings. Self-efficacy mediated the relationship between spirituality and drug and/or alcohol cravings. The limitations of this study included its cross-sectional design and a sample that was drawn from a faith-based program. Future research would benefit from the longitudinal examination of the relationship between spirituality, self-efficacy, and cravings; the exploration of a broader range of client-specific and interpersonal variables; and the inclusion of a control group from a secular treatment facility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Encounters with stimuli associated with drug use are believed to contribute to relapse. To probe the neurobiology of environmentally triggered drug use, we have conducted single-unit recordings in rhesus monkeys during presentation of two distinct types of drug paired cues that differentially support drug-seeking. The animals were highly conditioned to these cues via exposure during self-administration procedures conducted over a 4 year period. The cues studied were a discriminative cue that signaled response-contingent availability of cocaine, and a discrete cue that was temporally paired with the cocaine infusion (0.1 or 0.5 mg/kg). Two cortical regions consistently activated by cocaine-associated cues in human imaging studies are the orbitofrontal (OFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), though little is known about cortical neuronal activity responses to drug cues. We simultaneously recorded single-unit activity in OFC and ACC as well as in dorsal striatum in rhesus monkeys during cocaine self-administration. Dorsal striatal neurons were less engaged by drug cues than cortical regions. Between OFC and ACC, distinct functionality was apparent in neuronal responses. OFC neurons preferentially responded to the discriminative cue, consistent with a role in cue-induced drug-seeking. In contrast, the ACC did not respond more to the discriminative cue than to the discrete cue. Also distinct from the OFC, ACC showed sustained firing throughout the 18 s duration of the discrete cue. This pattern of sustained activation in ACC is consistent with a role in reward expectation and/or in mediating behavioral effects of discrete cues paired with drug infusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background The estimated impact of illicit drug use and mental disorders upon population health needs to be understood because there is evidence that they produce substantial loss of life and disability, and information is needed on the comparative population health impact of different diseases and risk factors to help focus policy, service and research planning and execution. Aims To provide an overview of a global project, running since the end of 2007—Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2005. Methods The new GBD aims to update comprehensively the findings of the first GBD exercise. It aims to provide regional and global estimates of the burden of disease attributable to hundreds of diseases, injuries and their risk factors. Groups have been assembled to provide expert advice on the parameters needed to inform these estimates; here, we provide a brief summary of the broad range of work being undertaken by the group examining illicit drug use and mental disorders. Discussion The estimates of the contribution of mental disorders and illicit drugs to GBD will inform and potentially shape the focus of researchers, clinicians and governments in the years to come. We hope that interested readers might be encouraged to submit new data or feedback on the work completed thus far, as well as the work that is still under way and yet to be completed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecstasy [3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)] use has been associated with a number of psychopathological problems. However, research suggests that reported symptoms might be associated more with heavy polydrug use in general rather than ecstasy per se. The current study aimed to determine the role of other drug use in reports of long-term effects by some ecstasy-polydrug users. Problematic ecstasy users (n = 53), reporting problems which they attributed to ecstasy use, were compared with non-problematic ecstasy users (n = 62), polydrug (n = 62) and alcohol/nicotine using controls (n = 111). Drug use was recorded, and positive and negative life changes were assessed along with which previous drug use, if any, they attributed these changes too. Both ecstasy groups reported higher drug use compared with polydrug controls. Polydrug and ecstasy users more often reported life changes compared with non-drug users, and ecstasy users appeared to experience more life changes than polydrug users, with problematic ecstasy users experiencing most alterations. Ecstasy users reported changes more to a combination of drugs than to one specific drug, suggesting that polydrug use in these groups has an impact on their life experiences. These findings emphasise that research into the psychological effects of ecstasy should not underestimate the role of other polydrug use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite evidence that ±3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; 'ecstasy') causes persistent alterations to the serotonergic system of animals, evidence for long-term neurological effects of ecstasy/MDMA in humans remains equivocal. The current study assessed serotonin functioning of nine male and 11 female recreational ecstasy polydrug users by measuring neuroendocrine (prolactin, cortisol) responses to pharmacological challenge with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram, compared with nine male and five female cannabis polydrug users and 11 male and 11 female non-drug using controls. A single-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled design was used. Subjective responses, other substance use, mood, personality traits and demographic variables were measured to control for potentially confounding variables. There were no significant differences between ecstasy polydrug users, cannabis polydrug users and non-drug using controls in neuroendocrine or subjective responses to serotonergic challenge, and there were no sex by drug group interactions. There was no relationship between extent of ecstasy use and neuroendocrine functioning, alone or in combination with potential confounding variables. Subjective responses to the pharmacological challenge (nausea, tremor, dry mouth), novelty seeking and lifetime dose of alcohol were the only variables that contributed to one or more of the neuroendocrine outcome variables. These data do not support the premise that recreational ecstasy/MDMA use results in measurable impairment of serotonergic control of endocrine activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grounded conceptually in social cognitive theory, this research examines how personal, behavioral, and environmental factors are associated with risk perceptions of anabolic-androgenic steroids. Ordinal logistic regression and logit log-linear models applied to data gathered from high-school seniors (N = 2,160) in the 2005 Monitoring the Future study showed significant explanatory effects for sex, race, exposure to drug spots, steroid availability, peer use of steroids, sensation-seeking, depression, and self-esteem. Females, African Americans, and those who had seen drug spots the most frequently estimated higher levels of risk associated with steroid use, while those who indicated ease in obtaining steroids and those with close friends who had used the drugs estimated lower risk. Also estimating lower levels of risk were sensation seekers, those who appeared depressed, and those with low levels of self-esteem. Analyses reveal how steroid risk determinants may differ from those related to methylenedioxymethamphetamine (i.e., MDMA, ecstasy) and marijuana use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caldendrin is a synaptic calcium sensor protein that is tightly associated with the postsynaptic density (PSD). Previous work has shown that the association of the protein with the synapse is highly dynamic and is increased in an activity-dependent manner. In the present study the caldendrin-association with the postsynaptic cytomatrix was analyzed in animal models of psychosis and drug abuse induced neurotoxicity. Subchronic administration of the N-methyl- d-aspartate (NMDA)-receptor antagonist ketamine, serving as a model of NMDA-receptor hypofunction and schizophrenia showed no significant effect on the PSD-levels of caldendrin, indicating that NMDA-receptor activity is not required to keep caldendrin at the synapse. However, administration of high doses of the serotonergic neurotoxin p-chloroamphetamine (PCA) lead to significant changes in the association of caldendrin with the PSD. These results underscore the dynamic association of caldendrin with the PSD and suggest a role of this synaptic calcium sensor in the PCA-induced serotonin syndrome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed how women's perceptions of emotional and material social support affect their completion of residential drug treatment. Although previous research has examined how social support affects recovery, few studies, if any, have examined both the types and the sources of social support. The study hypothesized that women's perceptions of the emotional and material social support they receive from family, friends, partners, drug treatment, child welfare, and welfare agencies will affect treatment completion. The sample consisted of 117 women who were enrolled in a women's residential treatment program. Data were collected in semistructured initial and follow-up interviews using a life history calendar; the Scale of Perceived Social Support, which was adapted for this study; and women's treatment records. The results support the hypothesis. Social support can have both positive and negative effects on treatment completion, depending on the type and source of support provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stressful life experiences facilitate responsiveness to psychostimulant drugs. While there is ample evidence that adrenal glucocorticoids mediate these effects of stress, the role of the sympatho-adrenal system in the effects of psychostimulants is poorly understood. The present study investigated the role of the two adrenal stress hormones, corticosterone and epinephrine, in sensitization to the locomotor stimulant effects of cocaine. The DBA/2 mouse strain was used, as behavioral sensitization in this strain critically depends on adrenal hormones. Animals were subjected to adrenalectomy (“ADX”, surgical removal of the adrenals) or SHAM surgery, and ADX mice were given replacement of epinephrine (5 × 10−3 mg/kg subcutaneously (s.c.) just prior to each drug administration), corticosterone (20%, s.c., pellet), or both. Mice were subjected to a cocaine sensitization regimen (15.0 mg/kg cocaine on nine consecutive days followed by a 7.5 mg/kg cocaine challenge after a 5-day withdrawal). In agreement with our previous observations, ADX prevented initiation and expression of cocaine-induced locomotor sensitization. Whereas neither corticosterone nor epinephrine alone were sufficient to reverse the ADX effect, both hormones were necessary to fully restore initiation and retention of sensitization to levels observed in SHAM animals. The present findings indicate that corticosterone and epinephrine cooperate to facilitate behavioral responsiveness to cocaine. These data emphasize that in addition to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the sympathetic nervous system plays a critical role in psychostimulant sensitivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Acute administration of the psychostimulant amphetamine increases extracellular levels of dopamine (DA) by reversing the DA transporter on ascending midbrain DA neurons. In vitro studies using striatal synaptosomal, slice and nucleus accumbens (NAcc) tissue preparations have implicated protein kinase C (PKC) in this effect. The present study further examined this effect in vivo by assessing the ability of the PKC inhibitor, Ro31-8220 (10μM), to inhibit acute amphetamine-induced DA overflow when applied with this drug to the NAcc via reverse dialysis. Amphetamine was applied at a concentration of 30μM, and the core and shell subregions of the NAcc were assayed separately in freely moving rats. These brain regions play a role in the acute locomotor-activating and motivational effects of amphetamine. Consistent with the findings of previous in vitro experiments, reverse dialysis of Ro31-8220 with amphetamine robustly attenuated the ability of this drug to increase extracellular levels of dopamine in both the core and shell subregions of the NAcc. These results confirm that amphetamine stimulates dopamine overflow via a PKC-dependent mechanism. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Differences in developmental trajectories of physical violence, vandalism, theft, and alcohol-drug use from ages 10 to 15 were studied. For females and for males, three trajectories of theft and of alcohol-drug use increased from 10 years to 15 years, while only the high trajectory of vandalism increased from ten to 14. All trajectories of physical violence decreased. Children who engaged in the high trajectories of vandalism, theft, and alcohol-drug use had a high probability of also being high in physical violence. Compared to males, females were less likely to be on the high trajectory of physical violence, and their trajectories of other antisocial behaviors were less strongly associated with high levels of physical violence. The results suggest that physical violence during pre-adolescence and adolescence has a different developmental pattern than other forms of antisocial behavior, and that its relation to these other forms of antisocial behavior differs by sex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This qualitative study funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse examines phenomenological meanings surrounding motivations for club drug use in a sample of HIV seroconverted and seronegative gay and bisexual men. Grounded in the cognitive escape model (CEM), this study sought to clarify the synergistic relationship between club drug use, risky sexual behavior, and seroconversion. Sixteen seropositive participants were drawn from a large-scale (n = 450), longitudinal, mixed-method investigation of club drug use among gay and bisexual men in New York City from 2001-2004 and matched with 16 seronegative participants for race/ethnicity, most-frequently used substance, and educational level. Total sample size consisted of 32 participants. Sample size consisted of 13 (41%) Black/African-American, 12 (37.5%) White/Caucasian, 5 (15.5%) Hispanic/Latino, and 2 (6%) mixed/other race/ethnicity participants. Findings suggest behavioral outcomes of club drug use and HIV seroconversion result from complex interactions between physical, emotional, and social motivations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Preliminary research has indicated that recreational ketamine use may be associated with marked cognitive impairments and elevated psychopathological symptoms, although no study to date has determined how these are affected by differing frequencies of use or whether they are reversible on cessation of use. In this study we aimed to determine how variations in ketamine use and abstention from prior use affect neurocognitive function and psychological wellbeing. Method We assessed a total of 150 individuals: 30 frequent ketamine users, 30 infrequent ketamine users, 30 ex-ketamine users, 30 polydrug users and 30 controls who did not use illicit drugs. Cognitive tasks included spatial working memory, pattern recognition memory, the Stockings of Cambridge (a variant of the Tower of London task), simple vigilance and verbal and category fluency. Standardized questionnaires were used to assess psychological wellbeing. Hair analysis was used to verify group membership. Results Frequent ketamine users were impaired on spatial working memory, pattern recognition memory, Stockings of Cambridge and category fluency but exhibited preserved verbal fluency and prose recall. There were no differences in the performance of the infrequent ketamine users or ex-users compared to the other groups. Frequent users showed increased delusional, dissociative and schizotypal symptoms which were also evident to a lesser extent in infrequent and ex-users. Delusional symptoms correlated positively with the amount of ketamine used currently by the frequent users. Conclusions Frequent ketamine use is associated with impairments in working memory, episodic memory and aspects of executive function as well as reduced psychological wellbeing. ‘Recreational’ ketamine use does not appear to be associated with distinct cognitive impairments although increased levels of delusional and dissociative symptoms were observed. As no performance decrements were observed in the ex-ketamine users, it is possible that the cognitive impairments observed in the frequent ketamine group are reversible upon cessation of ketamine use, although delusional symptoms persist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: There is conflicting data on drug abuse and outcome in severe mental illness. This study aims to investigate if the amount of illicit psychoactive drug use is related to symptom load or premorbid functioning across diagnosis in patients with severe mental illness. Method: Symptom load, sociodemographic status, premorbid functioning and the level of use of illicit psychoactive drugs were assessed in 423 subjects with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder in a cross-sectional study. Results: High amount of illicit drug use was associated with poorer premorbid academic functioning. In schizophrenia, there was a significant positive association between amount of drug use and severity of psychiatric symptoms. The association between symptom load and drug use was significant after controlling for premorbid functioning. Conclusion: The results suggest a direct association between the quantity of current drug use and more severe symptoms in schizophrenia. Poor premorbid functioning was related to high amount of use, but did not explain the difference in symptom load. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: The stimulant drug methylphenidate, otherwise known as Ritalin, is the mainstay of treatment for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and is the most common psychotropic medication prescribed to children. Whilst psychiatric discourse presents it as a safe and effective treatment, critics point out its similarity to drugs like cocaine and describe it as “legalised speed”. This article examines the ambivalent identity of Ritalin as both benign medicine and dangerous drug. Methods: This paper draws on and analyses existing medical and critical literature on Ritalin, as well psychopharmacological literature on pleasure and drug use. Results: Anxiety about the nature and use of Ritalin reflects tensions within medical and drug science about the therapeutic use of psychoactive drugs. Pleasure is central to this anxiety, as medically authorised use of drugs must not be contaminated by the uncontrolled bodily pleasures of illicit drug use. This is particularly the case for a drug like Ritalin which is used specifically to improve self-discipline and self-regulation. But the association of Ritalin with discipline rather than pleasure is complicated by pharmacological and behavioural evidence of its effects on neural reward systems and its capacities as a positive reinforcer. Conclusion: Ritalin is likely to maintain its ambivalent identity in medical, legal and popular discourses, despite lack of evidence of widespread abuse and addiction. The question of the correct use of Ritalin remains ultimately uncertain because of the heterogeneous and ambiguous nature of the scientific and medical discourses on psychoactive drugs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Background: The pleasures associated with the use of illicit drugs are rarely acknowledged in contemporary drug policy debates. Where they are, these pleasures are almost always attributed to the specific physiological and/or sensory effects of individual substances. Methods: Drawing on qualitative research recently completed in Melbourne, Australia, this paper argues that the pleasures associated with illicit drug use extend well beyond the purely physiological to include a host of properly contextual elements as well. Results: These “contextual” pleasures include the corporeal experience of space, such as the “feeling” of electronic music in a large night-club space, or the engagement with natural and wilderness environments. Also important are a range of corporeal and performative practices, such as dancing and interacting with strangers, which were reportedly facilitated with the use of different drugs. Conclusions: This emphasis on the dynamics of space, embodiment and practice as they impact the contextual experience of pleasure, has the potential to open up new ways of thinking about pleasure and its place in the mediation of all drug related behaviours. Greater understanding of these relationships should also facilitate the emergence of new, context specific, drug prevention and harm reduction initiatives. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objective: Cannabis use increases the risk for psychosis, but psychotogenic effects of cannabis may be restricted to exposure during early adolescence. Method: Four hundred and seventy-two participants (aged 12–23 years), randomly selected from the general population in Trinidad, completed questionnaires on past and current cannabis use and psychotic symptoms (using the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences). Results: Cannabis use increased the risk of experiencing psychotic symptoms and this effect was conditional on early exposure, defined around the mean age of onset of cannabis use. Thus, exposure before but not after the age of 14 years predicted psychotic symptoms (respectively β: 0.71, 95% CI 0.22; 1.19, P = 0.004 and β: −0.11, 95% CI −0.57; 0.36, P = 0.66). The developmental effect of cannabis use was independent of use of other drugs or current use of cannabis. Conclusion: Early adolescence may be a critical period with regard to the psychotogenic effect of cannabis across geographical settings and ethnic groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the prevalence, patterns, and correlates of past-year DSM-IV hallucinogen use disorders (HUDs) among past-year users of MDMA and other hallucinogens from a sample of Americans 18 or older (n = 37,227). Users were categorized as MDMA users and other hallucinogen users. Overall, one in five (20%) MDMA users and about one in six (16%) other hallucinogen users reported at least one clinical feature of HUDs. Among MDMA users, prevalence of hallucinogen abuse, subthreshold dependence, and dependence was 4.9%, 11.9%, and 3.6%, respectively. The majority with hallucinogen abuse displayed subthreshold dependence. Most with hallucinogen dependence exhibited abuse. Subthreshold hallucinogen dependence is relatively prevalent and represents a clinically important subgroup that warrants future research and consideration in a major diagnostic classification system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agnew's general strain theory suggests that negative life experiences constitute stress that may lead to deviance, unless effective coping strategies are forthcoming. In the present study, the principles of general strain theory were employed to examine the age-varying effects of three types of victimization on drug-using behavior: sexual victimization, physical victimization, or other victimization. Study data came from seven waves of the National Youth Survey, a longitudinal survey of youth ages 11 to 17 years when the study began in 1976. The broad hypotheses of general strain theory were supported, by the data, with some qualifications. Results of the data analysis also showed that victimization's impact on drug use is type-specific and/or drug-specific. Further studies with more sophisticated measures of drug use should clarify the role of victimization (by type) in various drug-using behaviors. The study's limitations are noted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies have exposed the consumption of drugs by undergraduate students in the health area, who are supposed to be examples of behavior and health educators. This descriptive correlation study aimed to relate the benefits of tobacco consumption and barriers to quit according to the perception of undergraduate students. Eighty third-year students, in three different courses, answered a self-applied questionnaire. The studied variables were: consumption conditions, barriers and benefits regarding drug consumption, family and personal characteristics. One-third of the students reported tobacco use; 5% reported the use of marijuana; 15% alcohol and 6% tranquilizers, more than once a month; 18% reported the consumption of tobacco and 13% reported the use of alcohol even before the age of 15. The perceived benefits were: relaxation, pleasure and social acceptance, whereas barriers for quitting were: habituation and addiction. According to the results, promoting self-responsibility of these future health professionals is recommended in their educational context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Accumulating epidemiological evidence points to the role of genetic background as a modulator of the capacity of adverse early experiences to give rise to mental illness. However, direct evidence of such gene-environment interaction in the context of substance abuse is scarce. In the present study we investigated whether the impact of early life experiences on cocaine intake in adulthood depends on genetic background. In addition, we studied other behavioral dimensions associated with drug abuse, i.e. anxiety- and depression-related behaviors. Methodology/Principal Findings: For this purpose, we manipulated the maternal environment of two inbred mouse strains, the C57BL/6J and DBA/2J by fostering them with non-related mothers, i.e. the C3H/HeN and AKR strains. These mother strains show respectively high and low pup-oriented behavior. As adults, C57BL/6J and DBA/2J were tested either for cocaine intravenous self-administration or in the elevated plus-maze and forced swim test (FST). We found that the impact of maternal environment on cocaine use and a depression-related behavior depends upon genotype, as cocaine self-administration and behavior in the FST were influenced by maternal environment in DBA/2J, but not in C57BL/6J mice. Anxiety was not influenced by maternal environment in either strain. Conclusions/Significance: Our experimental approach could contribute to the identification of the psychobiological factors determining the susceptibility or the resilience of certain individuals to develop psychopathologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on neurobehavior disinhibition (ND) trait. ND consists of behavior, affect, and cognitive indicators of self regulation. The psychometric properties of the ND trait was evaluated in 278 boys at ages 10 - 12 and 16 years. The authors discuss the ND trait indicators which measures the executive cognitive function (ECF), behavior control, and emotion regulation. They reveal that the ND score predicted SUD and results that manifest SUD by age 19 like violence,committing crime while intoxicated, and concussion injury. The usefulness of ND trait for detecting youth at high risk for SUD development and related results is also presented.

Aim To discuss the contributions and future course of the psychological science of addiction. Background The psychology of addiction includes a tremendous range of scientific activity, from the basic experimental laboratory through increasingly broad relational contexts, including patient–practitioner interactions, families, social networks, institutional settings, economics and culture. Some of the contributions discussed here include applications of behavioral principles, cognitive and behavioral neuroscience and the development and evaluation of addiction treatment. Psychology has at times been guilty of proliferating theories with relatively little pruning, and of overemphasizing intrapersonal explanations for human behavior. However, at its best, defined as the science of the individual in context, psychology is an integrated discipline using diverse methods well-suited to capture the multi-dimensional nature of addictive behavior. Conclusions Psychology has a unique ability to integrate basic experimental and applied clinical science and to apply the knowledge gained from multiple levels of analysis to the pragmatic goal of reducing the prevalence of addiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on bipolar and cannabis use disorders after a first psychiatric hospitalization for mania. The design, setting, participants and results of the study are presented. In conclusion, the effects of the sequence of onsets of bipolar and cannabis use disorders were less pronounced than observed in co-occurring alcohol and bipolar disorders.

While the personality dimensions of novelty seeking and sensation seeking are associated with drug abuse vulnerability, the mechanisms associated with this vulnerability remain obscure. This study examined the behavioral effects of d-amphetamine in healthy volunteers scoring in the upper and lower quartiles based on age- and gender-adjusted population norms on the impulsive Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS) of the Zuckerman–Kuhlman personality questionnaire (ZKPQ). Participants completed 7-day outpatient studies examining the subjective, performance, and cardiovascular effects of d-amphetamine (0, 7.5, and 15 mg/70 kg, p.o.) under double-blind conditions according to a randomized block design. Performance tasks included behavioral measures of impulsivity, including attention, inhibition, and risk-taking behavior. No differences in baseline performance or d-amphetamine effects on measures of attention, inhibition, and risk-taking behavior were observed. High impulsive sensation seekers reported greater increases on several subjective report measures associated with drug abuse potential, including visual analog scales feel drug, like drug, and high. Healthy adults scoring in the top quartile on the population of the impulsive SSS of the ZKPQ may be vulnerable to the abuse potential of d-amphetamine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

General Strain Theory (GST) argues that drug use is one way adolescents mitigate negative emotions brought on by aversive environmental stimuli. To date, many of the empirical tests of the strain-drug use relationship have neglected to include measures of negative emotion, despite its prominence in GST's etiology of deviant behavior. The following study tests the mediating effects of despair on the strain-drug use relationship, evaluating the effects of parental reactions to leaving school on post-dropout drug use. The moderating effects of recency of dropout and gender of respondent are also considered. Results show that negative parental reactions to dropout affect drug use for females only, and that despair does not mediate this relationship. This type of negative affect has direct effects on drug use for both genders, rather than the indirect effects predicted by GST. These findings affirm prior research linking depressive negative affective states to drug use, but suggests that the relationship between strain and such emotional states is more complex than the theory suggests, particularly when the moderating effects of gender are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

N-methyl- d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, a subtype of glutamate receptors (GluRs) formed by assembly of the GluRζ subunit (called NR1 in rats) with any one of four GluRε subunits (GluRε1–4; NR2A–D), play an important role in excitatory neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity and brain development. Recent pharmacological studies have also indicated a role for NMDA receptors in drug addiction. In the present study, we investigated the behavioural adaptations to addictive drugs such as phencyclidine (PCP), methamphetamine (MAP) and morphine (MOR) in mice lacking the GluRε1 subunit of the NMDA receptor. GluRε1 mutant mice exhibited a malfunction of NMDA receptors, as evidenced by the reduction of [3H]MK-801 binding in an autoradiographic receptor binding assay. GluRε1 mutant mice showed an attenuation of acute PCP- and MAP-induced hyperlocomotion. The development of sensitization by repeated treatment with PCP and MAP at a low, but not high, dose was also suppressed. The development of MOR-induced analgesic tolerance and naloxone-precipitated MOR withdrawal symptoms were attenuated in GluRε1 mutant mice. In the place conditioning test, PCP-induced place aversion in naive mice and place preference in PCP-pretreated mice, as well as MOR-induced place preference, were diminished whereas MAP-induced place preference was not affected in GluRε1 mutant mice. These findings provide genetic evidence that GluRε1 subunit-containing NMDA receptors are involved in certain aspects of drug addiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescence corresponds to a transition period that requires adaptation and change capacities and skills. Most young people succeed with this challenge, whereas a minority fail. In order to identify with the teenage culture, become autonomous, and differentiate from their parents, some adolescents choose to use drugs, beginning with the use of cigarettes, alcohol, cannabis, followed by other illicit drugs such as opiates and stimulants. A high proportion of these adolescents attempt suicide, which is the primary cause of death during adolescence in many European countries. Who are the ‘‘vulnerable’’ adolescents? What are the mechanisms that can explain the varieties of drug-use initiation or suicide attempts? Can ‘‘protective factors’’ be identified? What kind of strategies might be developed at a social and political level in order to prevent or to minimize drug abuse and suicide attempts, among other harmful behaviors? These issues will be discussed on the basis of the recent literature and in the light of a recent study carried out in the French-speaking part of Switzerland on large cohorts of adolescent drug users. Unresolved critical issues are noted and future needed research is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rewarding properties of the psychoactive constituents of marijuana, termed "cannabinoids," may reflect actions on synaptic transmission in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). Furthermore, long-term changes in these synapses may support the addictive process. Excitatory and inhibitory synapses are acutely inhibited by cannabinoids in the NAc, and endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids) play a critical role in the expression of long-term depression (LTD) of excitatory cortical afferents in this structure. Because humans often use marijuana for prolonged periods, we examined the impact of long-term cannabinoid exposure on synaptic processes in an animal model. Electrophysiological recordings in rat brain slices containing the NAc were performed after chronic exposure to vehicle solution, Δ[sup9]-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), or the cannabinoid agonist R(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-[(morpholinyl)methyl]pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1,4benzoxazin-6-yl]-(1-naphthalenyl)methanone mesylate (WIN55,212-2). Extracellular glutamatergic postsynaptic potentials and whole-cell GABAergic IPSCs were concentration-dependently inhibited by WIN55,212-2 in slices from naive or vehicle-treated animals. However, the sensitivity to WIN55,212-2 was diminished in chronic agonist-treated animals. In addition, cross-tolerance to the inhibitory effect of the µ-opioid agonist Tyr-D-Ala²,N-CH[sub3]-Phe[sup4],Gly-ol-enkephalin was observed. Endocannabinoid-mediated LTD was initiated ha electrical stimulation (5 min, 10 Hz) of glutamatergic afferents to the NAc and was completely blocked by the cannabinoid receptor antagonist SR141716A [N-piperidino-5-(4-chlorphenyl)-(2-4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methypyrazole-3-carboxamide] in vehicle-treated animals. LTD was not observed in brain slices from rats... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined the possibility that marijuana use among college students might be associated with particular personality traits. College student volunteers (N = 176) were administered the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire and a drug-use questionnaire. Analysis of variance showed that the mean score on Novelty Seeking was significantly higher and on Persistence significantly lower among lifetime marijuana users than among nonmarijuana using peers. Programs for prevention among college students may be enhanced by approaches tailored to individuals scoring high on Novelty Seeking and Iow on Persistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation involved a first-attempt at modeling long-term treatment and work trajectories in a large, urban sample of individuals in publicly funded substance abuse treatment: (a) determining the demographic factors that predicted work patterns and (b) examining the longitudinal relationship between work status and continued treatment, persistent drug use, and psychological problems investigated work status across three years. Mixed-effects regression models revealed that significantly more participants were working and looking for work at each follow-up. Gains in labor force participation were greatest at six months while gains in employment were greatest at 24 months. Several demographic variables predicted later work status including age, gender, living arrangement, occupational skills, and having children in foster care. Participants who continued treatment, continued to use drugs, or reported psychological problems were most likely to be out of the labor force. By far, the greatest barrier to long-term employment was continued drug use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Individual differences may impact susceptibility to addiction. The impact of personality features on drug craving, however, has not been studied, particularly in women. Methods: Ninety-five treatment-seeking women with substance dependence, abstinent for at least 5 and no more than 21 days, were investigated regarding the correlation between personality factors and craving. Personality was assessed using the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), the NEO Personality Inventory Revised (NEO-PI-R), and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale version 11 (BIS-11). Cravings were assessed through the Pennsylvania Craving Scale (PCS), and the Craving Questionnaire (CQ). Anxiety and depressive symptomatology were also recorded. Results: Craving scores were positively correlated with depression and negatively correlated with number of days abstinent from substance use. Also, craving scores were positively associated with the novelty-seeking factor from the TCI and the total score on the BIS-11, and negatively associated with the conscientiousness and agreeableness facets of the NEO-PI-R. Conclusion: Findings suggest that personality features, particularly impulsiveness, can be important predictors of craving in women, which has important implications for treatment planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]