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Estimating the benefits of preventing child maltreatment (CM) is essential for policy makers to determine whether there are significant returns on investment from interventions to prevent CM. The aim of this study was to estimate the benefits of preventing CM deaths in an Ecuadorian population, and to compare the results to a similar study in a US population. The study used the contingent valuation method to elicit respondents’ willingness to pay (WTP) for a 1 in 100,000 reduction in the risk of CM mortality. After adjusting for differences in purchasing power, the WTP to prevent the CM mortality risk reduction in the Ecuador population was $237 and the WTP for the same risk reduction in the US population was $175. In the pooled analysis, WTP for a reduction in CM mortality was significantly impacted by country (p = 0.03), history of CM (p = 0.007), payment mechanism (p < 0.001), confidence in response (p = 0.014), and appropriateness of the payment mechanism (p < 0.001). These findings suggest that estimating benefits from one culture may not be transferable to another, and that low- and middle-income countries, such as Ecuador, may be better served by developing their own benefits estimates for use in future benefit-cost analyses of interventions designed to prevent CM.

To provide healthcare providers, patients, and the general public with a responsible assessment of currently available data on the use of active surveillance and other observational management strategies for low-grade, localized prostate cancer.A non-U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, nonadvocate 14-member panel representing the fields of cancer prevention and control, urology, pathology, epidemiology, genetics, transplantation, bioethics, economics, health services research, shared decisionmaking, health communication, and community engagement. In addition, 22 experts from pertinent fields presented data to the panel and conference audience.Presentations by experts and a systematic review of the literature prepared by the Tufts Evidence-based Practice Center, through the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). Scientific evidence was given precedence over anecdotal experience.The panel drafted its statement based on scientific evidence presented in open forum and on published scientific literature. The draft statement was presented on the final day of the conference and circulated to the audience for comment. The panel released a revised statement later that day at http://consensus.nih.gov. This statement is an independent report of the panel and is not a policy statement of the NIH or the Federal Government.Prostate cancer screening with prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing has identified many men with low-risk disease. Because of the very favorable prognosis of low-risk prostate cancer, strong consideration should be given to modifying the anxiety-provoking term "cancer" for this condition. Treatment of low-risk prostate cancer patients with radical prostatectomy or radiation therapy leads to side effects such as impotence and incontinence in a substantial number. Active surveillance has emerged as a viable option that should be offered to patients with low-risk prostate cancer. More than 100,000 men a year diagnosed with prostate cancer in the United States are candidates for this approach. However, there are many unanswered questions about active surveillance strategies and prostate cancer that require further research and clarification. These include: • Improvements in the accuracy and consistency of pathologic diagnosis of prostate cancer • Consensus on which men are the most appropriate candidates for active surveillance • The optimal protocol for active surveillance and the potential for individualizing the approach based on clinical and patient factors • Optimal ways to communicate the option of active surveillance to patients • Methods to assist patient decisionmaking • Reasons for acceptance or rejection of active surveillance as a treatment strategy • Short- and long-term outcomes of active surveillance. Well-designed studies to address these questions and others raised in this statement represent an important health research priority. Qualitative, observational, and interventional research designs are needed. Due to the paucity of evidence about this important public health problem, all patients being considered for active surveillance should be offered participation in multicenter research studies that incorporate community settings and partners.

Home visiting programs in the United States seek to improve maternal and child health, child development, and family economic self-sufficiency by supporting and educating families with young children. Today, home visiting is seen as an important strategy for high-risk families who may be difficult to engage in other services. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) of 2010 included $1.5 billion over five years for states to operate the Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting (MIECHV) program. It also required a national evaluation of the programs. This document describes the design of that evaluation — the Mother and Infant Home Visiting Program Evaluation (MIHOPE). MIHOPE was launched in 2011 by the Administration for Children and Families and the Health Resources and Services Administration within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The evaluation is being conducted by MDRC in partnership with Mathematica Policy Research, James Bell Associates, Johns Hopkins University, the University of Georgia, and Columbia University.MIHOPE will include the following components:-An analysis of state needs assessments will describe the communities that states chose to target with MIECHV program services.-An implementation study will collect information on the services provided by local programs as well as the factors that helped shape those programs.-An impact analysis will estimate the effects of home visiting programs on family outcomes, both overall and for key subgroups of families.-An economic analysis will assess program costs and savings.The study will include approximately 5,100 families with a pregnant woman or a child under 6 months old. Families who enroll in the study will be randomly assigned to a home visiting group or to a comparison group that can use other services available in their community. Families will be spread across about 85 local programs in about 12 states. Sites must be operating one of four national models of home visiting: Early Head Start-Home Visiting Option, Healthy Families America, Nurse-Family Partnership, or Parents as Teachers. These four models were chosen because they are being implemented using MIECHV program funds in at least 10 states.Data for the implementation and impact studies will be collected from a variety of sources, including interviews with parents; observations of the home environment; observed interactions of parents and children; direct assessments of children’s development; observations of home visitors in their work with families during home visits; logs, observations, and interviews with home visitors, supervisors, and program administrators; program model documentation from program developers, grantees, and local sites; and administrative data on child abuse, health care use, maternal health, birth outcomes, and employment and earnings.The study will produce a report to Congress in 2015 that includes information on families and sites included in the evaluation as well as information on how states made decisions about how to spend home visiting funds. Later reports will provide more information on program implementation, the effects of home visiting programs for families, and the features of programs that are associated with larger effects.

Introduction: Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a widespread social structural problem that affects a great proportion of Ecuadorian women. IPV is a sexually, psychologically, or physically coercive act against an adult or adolescent woman by a current or former intimate partner. Not-for-profit groups in Ecuador report that 70% of women experience 1 of the forms of IPV sometime during their lifetime, but population-based surveys suggest that 41% of Ecuadorian women are exposed to emotional violence, 31% physical violence, and 12% sexual violence by their spouse or partner over their lifetime. Despite the high prevalence, the response of the Ecuadorian government has been insufficient to reduce the number of victims and to provide adequate legal and health services for the prevention and treatment of IPV. Given the power of economic data to influence policy making, the goal of this study is to produce the first estimate of the economic impact of IPV in Ecuador and to identify the policy paths in which these estimates would have the greatest impact for Ecuador. Methods: Using a bottom-up method for estimating the economic burden of IPV and a national prevalence of IPV based on a population-based survey in the 2003–2004 year, the total economic burden is estimated at approximately $109 million adjusted to the 2012 United States (U.S.) currency rate. Results: Based on a prevalence of 255,267 women who were victims of IPV in the 2003–2004 year, the total economic burden is estimated at approximately $109 million adjusted to the 2012 the U.S. currency rate. The largest cost category contributing to the economic burden was the costs of healthcare services to treat injuries associated with IPV events. Conclusion: The asymmetry between the economic burden of IPV and the amount of government resources devoted to IPV prevention efforts suggests the need for a greater role to be played by the government and other factors in society in the area of IPV prevention. [West J Emerg Med. 2013;14(4):347–353.]

This study estimates the benefits and costs of a free clinic providing primary care services. Using matched data from a free clinic and its corresponding regional hospital on a sample of newly enrolled clinic patients, patients' non-urgent emergency department (ED) and inpatient hospital costs in the year prior to clinic enrollment were compared to those in the year following enrollment to obtain financial benefits. We compare these to annual estimates of the costs associated with the delivery of primary care to these patients. For our sample (n = 207), the annual non-urgent ED and inpatient costs at the hospital fell by $170 per patient after clinic enrollment. However, the cost associated with delivering primary care in the first year after clinic enrollment cost $505 per patient. The presence of a free primary care clinic reduces hospital costs associated with non-urgent ED use and inpatient care. These reductions in costs need to be sustained for at least 3 years to offset the costs associated with the initially high diagnostic and treatment costs involved in the delivery of primary care to an uninsured population.

Although assessing the costs of an intervention to prevent child maltreatment is straightforward, placing a monetary value on benefits is challenging. Respondents participating in a statewide random-digit-dialed survey were asked how much they would be willing to pay to prevent a death caused by child maltreatment. Our results suggested that society may value preventing a death from child maltreatment at $15 million. If a child maltreatment intervention is effective enough to save even 1 life, then in many cases, its benefits will outweigh its costs.

Purpose. To quantify the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and rates of medically attended injuries by mechanism (overall, fall, motor vehicle, and sport-related) and by nature (strain/sprain, lower extremity fracture, and dislocations), and between BMI and injury treatment costs. Design. Cross-sectional analysis. Setting. The noninstitutionalized population of the United States. Subjects. The 1999–2000, 2000–2001, and 2001–2002 waves of the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, a large, nationally representative dataset, were combined to create the analysis sample. The final sample included 42,304 adults. Measures. Medically attended injury rates by mechanism and nature of injury and related treatment costs. Analysis. Logistic regressions were used to separately estimate the odds of sustaining any injury by mechanism or by nature for overweight (25 ≤ BMI ≤ 29.9) and three categories of obese individuals compared with those who were normal weight. A second set of regressions tested whether, given that an injury occurred, obese individuals had greater injury treatment costs. Results. Slightly more than one in five adults sustain an injury each year that requires medical treatment. The odds of sustaining an injury are 15% (overweight) to 48% (Class III obesity) greater among those with excess weight. Conditional on sustaining an injury, BMI did not have a significant impact on injury treatment costs. Conclusion. Our findings show a clear association between BMI and the probability of sustaining an injury. If increasing BMI is causing the rise in injury rates, then the incidence of injuries, including those related to falls, sprains/strains, lower extremity fractures, and joint dislocations, are likely to increase as the prevalence of obesity increases.

Background Child maltreatment causes substantial morbidity and mortality in the U.S. Morbidity associated with child maltreatment can reduce health-related quality of life. Accurately measuring the reduction in quality of life associated with child maltreatment is essential to the economic evaluation of educational programs and interventions to reduce the incidence of child maltreatment. The objective of this study was to review the literature for existing approaches and instruments for measuring quality-of-life for child maltreatment outcomes. Methods We reviewed the current literature to identify current approaches to valuing child maltreatment outcomes for economic evaluations. We also reviewed available preference-based generic QOL instruments (EQ-5D, HUI, QWB, SF-6D) for appropriateness in measuring change in quality of life due to child maltreatment. Results We did not identify any studies that directly evaluated quality-of-life in maltreated children. We identified 4 studies that evaluated quality of life for adult survivors of child maltreatment and 8 studies that measured quality-of-life for pediatric injury not related to child maltreatment. No study reported quality-of-life values for children younger than age 3. Currently available preference-based QOL instruments (EQ-5D, HUI, QWB, SF-6D) have been developed primarily for adults with the exception of the Health Utilities Index. These instruments do not include many of the domains identified as being important in capturing changes in quality of life for child maltreatment, such as potential for growth and development or psychological sequelae specific to maltreatment. Conclusion Recommendations for valuing preference-based quality-of-life for child maltreatment will vary by developmental level and type of maltreatment. In the short-term, available multi-attribute utility instruments should be considered in the context of the type of child maltreatment being measured. However, if relevant domains are not included in existing instruments or if valuing health for children less than 6 years of age, direct valuation with a proxy respondent is recommended. The choice of a proxy respondent is not clear in the case of child maltreatment since the parent may not be a suitable proxy. Adult survivors should be considered as appropriate proxies. Longer-term research should focus on identifying the key domains for measuring child health and the development of preference-based quality-of-life instruments that are appropriate for valuing child maltreatment outcomes.

Injuries are the number one killer of children and young adults in the United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2005). More than 28 million injuries serious enough to require emergency medical care occur annually (CDC, 2005). The lives of millions of others have been dramatically affected by injuries to themselves or someone they love. Injury leads to pathological conditions and impaired physiological functioning that can affect any part, organ, or system of an individual and can have both short-term and long-term effects (Sattin, 1992). Due to the potential extensive nature of injuries, outcomes depend on a broad continuum of multidisciplinary care. Injury has been described, until recently, as the “neglected disease” because it occurs in such great numbers but has been tacitly accepted as a normal occurrence of living in a modern society (Committee on Trauma, and Committee on Shock, Division of Medical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council [Committee on Trauma], 1966). However, the 1985 report Injury in America noted that a public health approach similar to that used for other diseases could lead to signifi cant reduction in injuries (Committee on Trauma Research, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council and the Institute of Medicine [Committee on Trauma Research], 1985). Injuries can be viewed as a problem in medical ecology—that is, as a relationship between a person (the host), an agent, and the environment (Haddon, 1970; Haddon & Baker, 1981; Sattin, 1992). The underlying agent of injury is not a microbe or carcinogen but energy, most often in the form of mechanical force (Haddon, 1970). The dose of energy received; the dose’s distribution, duration, and rapidity; and the individual’s response to the transfer of the energy can deter

In this study, we investigate the association between exposure to adverse childhood experiences and long-term disability using receipt of Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) benefits as a proxy for disability as a measure of economic impact. Survey data were obtained over an eight-month period (ending in March 2014) from a convenience sample of patients attending two private psychology practices, and parishioners attending a local church in western Nebraska. Data were collected using the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study questionnaire, which collects information on eight areas of exposure (e.g., abuse and household dysfunction). Respondents were also asked for the status of SSDI applications and several demographic questions. The Student’s t-test and the two-sample test of proportions were used to test for statistically significant differences in total ACE score and individual ACE Study questions, respectively, by receipt of SSDI. The response rate was 64% (n = 96 out of 150) and respondents were mostly female (75%) with an average age of 48.2 years (range: 19–92). The mean total ACE score was significantly larger, indicating more adverse exposures, for respondents who received SSDI benefits (p = 0.037) compared to those who did not receive benefits. Exposure to sexual abuse (p = 0.014), neglect (p = 0.046), and a household member with mental illness (p = 0.012) were significantly associated with receipt of SSDI. Respondents who received SSDI were significantly more likely to report more exposure to adverse childhood experiences, particularly child maltreatment. These results suggest that the economic impact of child maltreatment may be underestimated if the long-term effect on the ability to work is not included. No previous studies have been conducted to determine the association of adverse childhood experiences and costly SSDI benefits. Investigating this association will provide policy makers with an understanding of the true economic burden of these events and, ultimately, lead to more resources to prevent these exposures.

Understanding the cycle of violence, from victimization to perpetration across the life span, is critical for designing successful prevention interventions. This study uses a nationally representative sample to examine the developmental relationships among three forms of child maltreatment, youth violence perpetration or victimization, and young adult intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration or victimization.Data describing self-reported youth violence perpetration (or victimization) from Wave I of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (1994-1995) were matched with self-reported IPV perpetration (or victimization) in young adult sexual relationships and retrospective reports of child maltreatment collected during Wave III (2001-2002). Bivariate probit regression models were used to analyze the developmental relationships between child maltreatment, youth violence, and IPV. Analyses were completed in September 2006.Compared to nonvictims of child maltreatment, victims of child maltreatment are more likely to perpetrate youth violence (a likelihood increase ranging from -1.2% to 6.6% for females and 3.7% to 11.9% for males) and young adult IPV (an increase from 8.7% to 10.4% for females and from 1.3% to 17.2% for males), although the direct and indirect effects vary by type of child maltreatment experienced. Gender differences exist in the links between child maltreatment, youth violence and IPV, and in the effects of socioeconomic factors on youth violence and IPV.Results suggest that it may be important to account for gender differences when designing violence prevention programs, and an integrative approach is critical for stopping the developmental trajectory of violence.

Objective: To estimate the incidence and direct medical costs for fatal and non-fatal fall injuries among US adults aged ⩾65 years in 2000, for three treatment settings stratified by age, sex, body region, and type of injury. Methods: Incidence data came from the 2000 National Vital Statistics System, 2001 National Electronic Injury Surveillance System-All Injury Program, 2000 Health Care Utilization Program National Inpatient Sample, and 1999 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. Costs for fatal falls came from Incidence and economic burden of injuries in the United States; costs for non-fatal falls were based on claims from the 1998 and 1999 Medicare fee-for-service 5% Standard Analytical Files. A case crossover approach was used to compare the monthly costs before and after the fall. Results: In 2000, there were almost 10 300 fatal and 2.6 million medically treated non-fatal fall related injuries. Direct medical costs totaled $0.2 billion dollars for fatal and $19 billion dollars for non-fatal injuries. Of the non-fatal injury costs, 63% ($12 billion) were for hospitalizations, 21% ($4 billion) were for emergency department visits, and 16% ($3 billion) were for treatment in outpatient settings. Medical expenditures for women, who comprised 58% of the older adult population, were 2–3 times higher than for men for all medical treatment settings. Fractures accounted for just 35% of non-fatal injuries but 61% of costs. Conclusions: Fall related injuries among older adults, especially among older women, are associated with substantial economic costs. Implementing effective intervention strategies could appreciably decrease the incidence and healthcare costs of these injuries.

Objectives: Although the case–crossover design has been used widely in epidemiological and cost-offset studies as an alternative to the case–control design, it is rarely applied to cost-of-illness studies. In this study, costs for a series of hospitalized and nonhospitalized fall-related injuries were computed using the 2 approaches to allow for a direct comparison of the results. Research Design: We used claims data from the Medicare fee-for-service 5% Standard Analytical Files. For the case–control design, those who sustained nonfatal fall-related injuries were tracked for 1 year after their first fall, and costs were compared, using regression analysis, to annual costs for a comparison sample of nonfallers. The case–crossover design used a modified regression approach that compared monthly costs of fallers before and after fall. Results: We present unit costs for falls requiring (1) a hospitalization resulting in a live discharge, (2) an emergency department visit not resulting in an admission, and (3) falls requiring office-based or hospital outpatient visits only. Using the case–control design, these costs were $22,260, $3890, and $5040 respectively. Using the case–crossover design, these estimates were reduced to $20,920, $3230, and $4200. Conclusions: On average, estimates of the costs of fall injuries from the case–control design were between 6% and 17% greater than those from the case–crossover approach. These differences likely result from our inability to control for comorbidity differences between fallers and nonfallers in the case–control design. Under several scenarios, including unobserved heterogeneity between cases and controls, the case–crossover design, although computationally more intensive, produces more accurate results.

Background Hormone therapy (HT) provides the most effective relief of menopausal symptoms. This therapy is associated with a decreased risk of osteoporosis and colorectal cancer but increased risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD), venous thrombosis, and breast cancer. Our objective was to identify which women should benefit from short-term HT by exploring the trade-off between symptom relief and risks of inducing disease. Methods A Markov model simulates the effect of short-term (2 years) estrogen and progestin HT on life expectancy and quality-adjusted life expectancy (QALE) among 50-year-old menopausal women with intact uteri, using findings from the Women's Health Initiative. Quality-of-life (QOL) utility scores were derived from the literature. We assumed HT-affected QOL only during perimenopause, when it reduced symptoms by 80%. Results Among asymptomatic women, short-term HT was associated with net losses in life expectancy and QALE of 1 to 3 months, depending on CVD risk. Women with mild or severe menopausal symptoms gained 3 to 4 months or 7 to 8 months of QALE, respectively. Among women at low risk for CVD, HT extended QALE if menopausal symptoms lowered QOL by as little as 4%. Among women at elevated CVD risk, HT extended QALE only if symptoms lowered QOL by at least 12%. Conclusions Hormone therapy is associated with losses in survival but gains in QALE for women with menopausal symptoms. Women expected to benefit from short-term HT can be identified by the severity of their menopausal symptoms and CVD risk.

In therapeutic foster care programs, youths who cannot live at home are placed in homes with foster parents who have been trained to provide a structured environment that supports their learning social and emotional skills. To assess the effectiveness of such programs in preventing violent behavior among participating youths, the Task Force on Community Preventive Services conducted a systematic review of the scientific literature regarding these programs. Reported and observed violence, including violent crime, were direct measures. Proxy measures were externalizing behavior (i.e., behavior in which psychological problems are acted out), conduct disorder, and arrests, convictions, or delinquency, as ascertained from official records, for acts that might have included violence. Reviewed studies assessed two similar interventions, distinguished by the ages and underlying problems of the target populations. Therapeutic foster care for reduction of violence by children with severe emotional disturbance (hereafter referred to as cluster therapeutic foster care) involved programs (average duration: 18 months) in which clusters of foster-parent families cooperated in the care of children (aged 5-13 years) with severe emotional disturbance. The Task Force found insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of this intervention in preventing violence. Therapeutic foster care for the reduction of violence by chronically delinquent adolescents (hereafter referred to as program-intensive therapeutic foster care) involved short-term programs (average duration: 6-7 months) in which program personnel collaborated closely and daily with foster families caring for adolescents (aged 12-18 years) with a history of chronic delinquency. On the basis of sufficient evidence of effectiveness, the Task Force recommends this intervention for prevention of violence among adolescents with a history of chronic delinquency. This report briefly describes how the reviews were conducted, provides additional information about the findings, and provides information that might help communities in applying the intervention locally.

Individuals are increasingly involved in decisions about their health care. Shared decision making (SDM), an intervention in the clinical setting in which patients and providers collaborate in decision making, is an important approach for informing patients and involving them in their health care. However, SDM cannot bear the entire burden for informing and involving individuals. Population-oriented interventions to promote informed decision making (IDM) should also be explored. This review provides a conceptual background for population-oriented interventions to promote informed decisions (IDM interventions), followed by a systematic review of studies of IDM interventions to promote cancer screening. This review specifically asked whether IDM interventions (1) promote understanding of cancer screening, (2) facilitate participation in decision making about cancer screening at a level that is comfortable for individuals; or (3) encourage individuals to make cancer-screening decisions that are consistent with their preferences and values. Fifteen intervention arms met the intervention definition. They used small media, counseling, small-group education, provider-oriented strategies, or combinations of these to promote IDM. The interventions were generally consistent in improving individuals' knowledge about the disease, accuracy of risk perceptions, or knowledge and beliefs about the pros and cons of screening and treatment options. However, few studies evaluated whether these interventions resulted in individuals participating in decision making at a desirable level, or whether they led to decisions that were consistent with individuals' values and preferences. More research is needed on how best to promote and facilitate individuals' participation in health care. Work is especially needed on how to facilitate participation at a level desired by individuals, how to promote decisions by patients that are consistent with their preferences and values, how to perform effective and cost-effective IDM interventions for healthcare systems and providers and in community settings (outside of clinical settings), and how to implement these interventions in diverse populations (such as populations that are older, nonwhite, or disadvantaged). Finally, work is needed on the presence and magnitude of barriers to and harms of IDM interventions and how they might be avoided.

Early childhood home visitation programs are those in which parents and children are visited in their home during the child's first 2 years of life by trained personnel who provide some combination of the following: information, support, or training regarding child health, development, and care. Home visitation has been used for a wide range of objectives, including improvement of the home environment, family development, and prevention of child behavior problems. The Task Force on Community Preventive Services (the Task Force) conducted a systematic review of scientific evidence concerning the effectiveness of early childhood home visitation for preventing several forms of violence: violence by the visited child against self or others; violence against the child (i.e., maltreatment [abuse or neglect]); other violence by the visited parent; and intimate partner violence. On the basis of strong evidence of effectiveness, the Task Force recommends early childhood home visitation for the prevention of child abuse and neglect. The Task Force found insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of early childhood home visitation in preventing violence by visited children, violence by visited parents (other than child abuse and neglect), or intimate partner violence in visited families. (Note that insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness should not be interpreted as evidence of ineffectiveness.) No studies of home visitation evaluated suicide as an outcome. This report provides additional information regarding the findings, briefly describes how the reviews were conducted, and provides information that can help in applying the recommended intervention locally.

Introduction Case detection by passive case finding (PCF) strategy alone is inadequate for detecting all tuberculosis (TB) cases in high burden settings especially Sub-Saharan Africa. Alternative case detection strategies such as community Active Case Finding (ACF) and Household Contact Investigations (HCI) are effective but empirical evidence of their cost-effectiveness is sparse. The objective of this study was to determine whether adding ACF or HCI compared with standard PCF alone represent cost-effective alternative TB case detection strategies in urban Africa. Methods A static decision modeling framework was used to examine the costs and effectiveness of three TB case detection strategies: PCF alone, PCF+ACF, and PCF+HCI. Probability and cost estimates were obtained from National TB program data, primary studies conducted in Uganda, published literature and expert opinions. The analysis was performed from the societal and provider perspectives over a 1.5 year time-frame. The main effectiveness measure was the number of true TB cases detected and the outcome was incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) expressed as cost in 2013 US$ per additional true TB case detected. Results Compared to PCF alone, the PCF+HCI strategy was cost-effective at US$443.62 per additional TB case detected. However, PCF+ACF was not cost-effective at US$1492.95 per additional TB case detected. Sensitivity analyses showed that PCF+ACF would be cost-effective if the prevalence of chronic cough in the population screened by ACF increased 10-fold from 4% to 40% and if the program costs for ACF were reduced by 50%. Conclusions Under our baseline assumptions, the addition of HCI to an existing PCF program presented a more cost-effective strategy than the addition of ACF in the context of an African city. Therefore, implementation of household contact investigations as a part of the recommended TB control strategy should be prioritized.

Background Assessing societal willingness-to-pay (WTP) is one approach for monetising potential benefits of an intervention. In the field of child maltreatment (CM), such estimates are scarce and have rarely been compared between populations from different countries. Aims/Objectives/Purpose This study estimates WTP for an intervention intended to reduce the mortality risk associated with CM, comparing an Ecuadorian to US population. Methods We used the contingent valuation method to ask WTP in increased annual taxes (in US$) for a 50% reduction in CM mortality risk. The US population (n=117) was selected by random-digit dial in 2008. The Ecuadorian population (n=78) was selected by convenience from different shopping districts in 2012. The 2008 WTP estimates were inflated to 2012 US$ for comparison. The maximum likelihood function was estimated using interval regression in STATA. Other covariates tested in the model included age, gender, race, and history of CM abuse. Results/Outcomes The WTP for a 50% reduction in the risk of a child being killed by a caretaker or parent was $167 ($146-$190, 95% CI) in Ecuador, and $215 ($185 to $246, 95% CI) in the US, which was significantly different at p=0.08 when tested in the reduced model. In the full model, none of the covariates including country were significant. Significance/Contribution to the Field WTP to prevent CM death varies marginally from one population to another, likely tempered by differences in purchasing power. Given the overall low probability of CM death, the value placed on a life saved from CM in either population is considerable. This is an abstract of a presentation at Safety 2012, the 11th World Conference on Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion, 1-4 October 2012, Michael Fowler Center, Wellington, New Zealand. Full text does not seem to be available for this abstract.

Background Exposure to violence affects an individual9s overall health. For example, reductions in the mental health and social functioning domains of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) strongly correlate with domestic violence. Purpose There is a gap in the literature on the influence violence on HRQoL for African-American teenagers in particular. Methods African-American teenagers (N=491) enrolled in a behavioural intervention self-reported during waves of data collection, beginning at age (mean) 16.0 through age (mean) 18.5, exposure to violent crime, propensity for aggression, perpetration of violence, and dimensions of HRQoL as defined by the SF-36. We used a fixed-effects linear regression model to investigate the impact of being a violence victim or perpetrator on each of the eight dimensions and two component summary scales of the SF-36, while controlling for high depressive symptoms and socio-economic risk status. Differences are significant at a p Results Considering the eight dimensions of HRQoL, for victims we found a significant reduction in the ‘role-limitations’ domain for victims and, for perpetrators we found a significant decrease in the ‘role-limitations’ and ‘mental health’ domains. Regarding the component summary scales, for perpetrators we found significant decreases in both the physical and mental summary scales. Significance Our results agree with other published studies that suggest violence significantly decreases a victim9s overall mental health. However, for violence victimisation and perpetration, we found that violence might also impair African-American teenagers9 ability to handle ‘normal or usual daily activities,’ which may indicate that violence interferes with their societal and household productivity.

Background Violence-related injuries, including suicide, adversely affect the health and welfare of all Americans through premature death, disability, medical costs, and lost productivity. Estimating the magnitude of the economic burden of violence is critical for understanding the potential amount of resources that can be saved if cost-effective violence prevention efforts can be broadly applied. From 2003 to 2005, the lifetime medical costs and productivity losses associated with medically treated injuries due to interpersonal and self-directed violence occurring in the United States in 2000 were assessed. Methods Several nationally representative data sets were combined to estimate the incidence of fatal and nonfatal injuries due to violence. Unit medical and productivity costs were computed and then multiplied by corresponding incidence estimates to yield total lifetime costs of violence-related injuries occurring in 2000. Results The total costs associated with nonfatal injuries and deaths due to violence in 2000 were more than $70 billion. Most of this cost ($64.4 billion or 92%) was due to lost productivity. However, an estimated $5.6 billion was spent on medical care for the more than 2.5 million injuries due to interpersonal and self-directed violence. Conclusions The burden estimates reported here provide evidence of the large health and economic burden of violence-related injuries in the U.S. But the true burden is likely far greater and the need for more research on violence surveillance and prevention are discussed.