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DNA adducts are a measure of internal exposure to genotoxicants and an important biomarker for human risk assessment. However, the employment of DNA adducts as biomarkers in human studies is often restricted because fresh-frozen tissues are not available. In contrast, formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues with clinical diagnosis are readily accessible. Recently, our laboratory reported that DNA adducts of aristolochic acid, a carcinogenic component of Aristolochia herbs used in traditional Chinese medicines worldwide, can be recovered quantitatively from FFPE tissues. In this study, we have evaluated the efficacy of our method for retrieval of DNA adducts from archived tissue by measuring DNA adducts derived from four other classes of human carcinogens: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), aromatic amines, heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), and N-nitroso compounds (NOCs). Deoxyguanosine (dG) adducts of the PAH benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), 10-(deoxyguanosin-N(2)-yl)-7,8,9-trihydroxy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene (dG-N(2)-B[a]PDE); the aromatic amine 4-aminobiphenyl (4-ABP), N-(deoxyguanosin-8-yl)-4-aminobiphenyl (dG-C8-4-ABP); the HAA 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), N-(deoxyguanosin-8-yl)-PhIP (dG-C8-PhIP); and the dG adducts of the NOC 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), O(6)-methyl-dG (O(6)-Me-dG) and O(6)-pyridyloxobutyl-dG (O(6)-POB-dG), formed in liver, lung, bladder, pancreas, or colon were recovered in comparable yields from fresh-frozen and FFPE preserved tissues of rodents treated with the procarcinogens. Quantification was achieved by ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization ion-trap multistage mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI-IT-MS(3)). These advancements in the technology of DNA adduct retrieval from FFPE tissue clear the way for use of archived pathology samples in molecular epidemiology studies designed to assess the causal role of exposure to hazardous chemicals with cancer risk.

of chemotherapeutic agents (3–10). Also, in murine models of early phase tumorigenesis, DIM has been shown to inhibit tumor formation in the prostate (11), cervix (12) and lung (13). Despite the promising anticancer effects of DIM, most of the preclinical studies in murine models have been carried out at dose levels that are at least one order of magnitude higher than the amount of DIM tolerated by humans. Another issue is the poor bioavailability of DIM. Administration of DIM to human volunteers at the maximum tolerated dose level (14) led to a plasma concentration that was two orders of magnitude less than the concentrations of the agent required to induce apoptotic and antiproliferative effects in cell line models (3). In lung chemoprevention studies, one promising strategy to overcome the poor bioavailability and potential systemic toxicities of DIM is administration of the agent via the intranasal route, a non-invasive drug administration method, which enables direct delivery of the agent to the lung, thereby imparting optimal DIM concentration at the target organ but decreased exposure of non-target normal tissues. In this study, we examined the efficacy of intranasally administered bio-response DIM (BRD), absorption-enhanced DIM formulation, against 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)induced lung tumorigenesis in mice. Moreover, we assessed, using an in vitro model of lung tumorigenesis consisting of bronchial cells at different stages of transformation, the antiproliferative and apoptotic activities of BRD and the mechanisms through which these effects are mediated. Our findings indicate that intranasal administration of BRD, at dose levels equivalent to those found to be well tolerated in humans, significantly inhibited NNK-induced lung tumorigenesis in mice. Also, BRD differentially suppressed the growth and survival of premalignant and malignant bronchial cells with minimal effects in parental immortalized cells through, at least partly, inhibition of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway.

We studied the chemopreventive efficacy of indole-3-carbinol (I3C), a phytochemical found in cruciferous vegetables, to inhibit tobacco carcinogen-induced lung adenocarcinoma in A/J mice when given following post-initiation or progression protocol. Moreover, we assessed the potential mechanisms responsible for the anticancer effects of I3C. Post-initiation administration of I3C decreased the multiplicity of surface tumors as well as all forms of histopathological lesions, including adenocarcinoma, whereas administration of the compound during tumor progression failed to decrease the multiplicity of surface tumors and early forms of microscopic lesions but reduced the frequency of adenocarcinoma. Mechanistic studies in A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells indicated that the lung cancer preventive effects of I3C are mediated, at least in part, via modulation of the receptor tyrosine kinase/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are believed to be among the causative agents for lung cancer in smokers. PAHs require metabolic activation for carcinogenicity. One pathway produces diol epoxides that react with DNA, causing mutations. Because diol epoxides are converted to tetraols, quantitation of tetraols can potentially be used to identify smokers who may be at higher risk for lung cancer. Our approach uses [D(10)]phenanthrene, a labeled version of phenanthrene, a noncarcinogenic PAH structurally analogous to carcinogenic PAH. Although smokers are exposed to PAH by inhalation, oral dosing would be more practical for phenotyping studies. Therefore, we investigated [D(10)]phenanthrene metabolism in smokers after administration by inhalation in cigarette smoke or orally. Sixteen smokers received 10 μg of [D(10)]phenanthrene in a cigarette or orally. Plasma and urine samples were analyzed for [D(10)]r-1,t-2,3,c-4-tetrahydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrophenanthrene ([D(10)]PheT), the major end product of the diol epoxide pathway, by gas chromatography-negative ion chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. The ratios of [D(10)]PheT (oral dosing/inhalation) in 15 smokers were 1.03 ± 0.32 and 1.02 ± 0.35, based on plasma area under the concentration-time curve (0-∞) and total 48-h urinary excretion, respectively. Overall, there was no significant difference in the extent of [D(10)]PheT formation after the two different routes of exposure in smokers. A large interindividual variation in [D(10)]PheT formation was observed. These results demonstrate that the level of [D(10)]PheT in urine after oral dosing of [D(10)]phenanthrene can be used to assess individual capacity of PAH metabolism by the diol epoxide pathway.

This perspective reviews our work on the identification of DNA adducts of N-nitrosopyrrolidine and some related aldehydes. The research began as a focused project to investigate mechanisms of cyclic nitrosamine carcinogenesis but expanded into other areas, as aldehyde metabolites of NPYR were shown to have their own diverse DNA adduct chemistry. A total of 69 structurally distinct DNA adducts were identified, and some of these, found in human tissues, have provided intriguing leads for investigating carcinogenesis mechanisms in humans due to exposure to both endogenous and exogenous agents.

In earlier studies, we demonstrated the efficacy of indole-3-carbinol (I3C) against lung adenocarcinoma in A/J mice. However, these effects were accompanied by reductions in body weight gain. We therefore assessed if combinations of low doses of I3C with silibinin could inhibit lung tumorigenesis without causing undesirable side effects. In in vitro assays with A549 and H460 lung cancer cells, exposure of the cells to a mixture of low concentrations of I3C (50 μM) plus silibinin (50 μM) for 72 h caused inhibition of cell growth and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Akt activation and induction of apoptosis, whereas the individual agents did not have any effect. In mice pretreated with 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone and given I3C (10 μmol/g diet) plus silibinin (7 μmol/g diet), multiplicities of tumors on the surface of the lung and adenocarcinoma were reduced by 60 and 95%, respectively. The individual effects of I3C and silibinin were relatively weaker: 43 and 36% reductions, respectively, in the multiplicity of tumors on the surface of the lung and 83 and 50% reductions, respectively, in the number of adenocarcinoma. Also, the expression of phospho-Akt, phospho-ERK and cyclin D1 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage were strongly modulated by I3C plus silibinin than by I3C or silibinin alone, suggesting that the chemopreventive activities of the mixture could be mediated, at least partly, via modulation of the level of these proteins. Taken together, our findings showed that mixtures of I3C and silibinin are more potent than the individual compounds for the chemoprevention of lung cancer in A/J mice.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are among the likely major causative agents for lung cancer in smokers. PAH require metabolic activation to exert their carcinogenic effects, and one important pathway proceeds through a three-step sequence resulting in the formation of diol epoxides, which react with DNA to produce adducts that can cause mutations and initiate the carcinogenic process. However, no previous published studies have examined this critical pathway in humans specifically exposed to PAH by inhalation of cigarette smoke. This study used a unique approach employing a stable isotope derivative of phenanthrene, the simplest PAH with a bay region, a feature closely associated with PAH carcinogenicity. Twelve subjects each smoked a cigarette to which [D(10)]phenanthrene had been added. Plasma was analyzed for [D(10)]r-1,t-2,3,c-4-tetrahydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrophenanthrene ([D(10)]PheT), the major end product of the diol epoxide metabolism pathway of phenanthrene. The analysis was performed by gas chromatography--negative ion chemical ionization--tandem mass spectrometry, using [(13)C(6)]PheT as internal standard. The results demonstrated that the three-step pathway resulting in the formation of diol epoxides, as monitored by [D(10)]PheT, occurred with remarkable rapidity. Levels of [D(10)]PheT in plasma of all subjects were maximal at the earliest time points examined, 15-30 min after smoking the cigarette containing [D(10)]phenanthrene, and decreased thereafter. These results demonstrate that the formation of a PAH diol epoxide occurs rapidly in smokers. Because PAH diol epoxides are mutagenic and carcinogenic, the results clearly demonstrate immediate negative health consequences of smoking, which should serve as a major warning to anyone contemplating initiating tobacco use.

Many studies have examined the relationship between polymorphisms in glutathione S-transferase genes and cancer in people exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) such as benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), but the results to date have been modest. Missing from these studies has been an exploration of the formation of the appropriate glutathione conjugates in humans. We incubated human hepatocytes from 10 donors with racemic anti-BaP-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE), believed to be a major ultimate carcinogen of BaP, or with the noncarcinogenic reverse diol epoxide, racemic anti-BaP-9,10-diol-7,8-epoxide (rev-BPDE). Incubations were carried out for 12 or 24 h. We used high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry-selected reaction monitoring at m/z 464 --m/z 317 to analyze the incubation mixtures for the mercapturic acid products that would result from glutathione conjugation. The standard mercapturic acids were synthesized by reaction of BPDE or rev-BPDE with N-acetylcysteine. We obtained convincing evidence in human hepatocytes for mercapturic acid formation from rev-BPDE in all 10 samples, in amounts up to 17 pmol/ml. However, we could detect mercapturic acids from BPDE in only 1 of 10 samples (0.05 pmol/ml). Taken together with our similar previous results of analyses of phenanthrene metabolites in human hepatocytes and human urine, the results of this study indicate that conjugation of BPDE with glutathione is a minor pathway in humans, indicating that glutathione S-transferase genotyping is not an effective method for assessing risk of PAH-induced cancer in humans, at least with respect to the diol epoxide pathway of PAH carcinogenesis.

The tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and its metabolite 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) are potent pulmonary carcinogens in rats. NNK and NNAL require metabolic activation to express their carcinogenicity. Cytochrome P450-catalyzed alpha-hydroxylation at the methyl position of NNK or NNAL generates reactive intermediates, which alkylate DNA to form pyridyloxobutyl (POB)-DNA adducts or pyridylhydroxybutyl (PHB)-DNA adducts. NNK is metabolized to NNAL in a reversible and stereoselective manner, and the tissue-specific retention of (S)-NNAL is believed to be important to the carcinogenicity of NNK. In the present study, we investigated the formation of POB- and PHB-DNA adducts in extrahepatic tissues of F344 rats treated chronically with NNK and (R)- and (S)-NNAL (10 ppm in the drinking water, 1-20 weeks). POB- and PHB-DNA adducts were quantified in nasal olfactory mucosa, nasal respiratory mucosa, oral mucosa, and pancreas of treated rats. Adduct formation in the nasal respiratory mucosa exceeded that in the other tissues. O(2)-[4-(3-Pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]thymidine (O(2)-POB-dThd) or O(2)-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-hydroxybut-1-yl]thymidine (O(2)-PHB-dThd) was the major adduct, followed by 7-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]guanine (7-POB-Gua) or 7-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-hydroxybut-1-yl]guanine (7-PHB-Gua). There was a remarkable similarity in adduct formation between the NNK and the (S)-NNAL groups, both of which were distinctively different from that in the (R)-NNAL group. For example, in the nasal olfactory mucosa, POB-DNA adduct levels in the NNK and (S)-NNAL groups were not significantly different from each other, while (R)-NNAL treatment generated 6-33 times lower amounts of POB-DNA adducts than did NNK treatment. In contrast, (R)-NNAL treatment produced significantly higher levels of PHB-DNA adducts than did NNK or (S)-NNAL treatment. Similar trends were observed in the nasal respiratory mucosa, oral mucosa, and pancreas. These results suggest extensive retention of (S)-NNAL in various tissues of NNK-treated rats and support a mechanism in which the preferential metabolism of NNK to (S)-NNAL, followed by sequestration of (S)-NNAL in the target tissues and reoxidation to NNK, is important to NNK tumorigenesis.

N'-Nitrosonornicotine (NNN) is the most prevalent of the carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamines found in all tobacco products. Previous studies have demonstrated that cytochrome P450-mediated 5'-hydroxylation of NNN is a major metabolic pathway leading to mutagenic products, but to date, DNA adducts formed by this pathway have been only partially characterized, and there have been no studies reported on adducts formed with bases other than dGuo. Because adducts with dAdo and dThd have been identified in the DNA of the livers of rats treated with the structurally related carcinogen N-nitrosopyrrolidine, we investigated dAdo and dThd adduct formation from 5'-acetoxyNNN (3), a stable precursor to 5'-hydroxyNNN (2). Reaction of 3 with dAdo gave diastereomeric products, which were identified by their spectral properties and LC-ESI-MS/MS-SRM analysis as N(6)-[5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuran-2-yl]dAdo (9). This adduct was further characterized by NaBH(3)CN reduction to N(6)-[4-hydroxy-4-(3-pyridyl)but-1-yl]dAdo (17). A second dAdo adduct was identified, after NaBH(3)CN treatment, as 6-[2-(3-pyridyl)pyrrolidin-1-yl]purine-2'-deoxyriboside (18). Reaction of 3 with dThd, followed by NaBH(3)CN reduction, gave O(2)-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-hydroxybut-1-yl]thymidine (11). Adducts 9, 11, 17, and 18 were all identified by LC-ESI-MS/MS-SRM comparison to synthetic standards. The reaction of 3 with calf thymus DNA was then investigated. The DNA was enzymatically hydrolyzed to deoxyribonucleosides, and the resulting mixture was treated with NaBH(3)CN and analyzed by LC-ESI-MS/MS-SRM. Adducts 11, 17, and 18, as well as the previously identified dGuo adducts, were identified. The results of this study provide a more comprehensive picture of DNA adduct formation by the quantitatively important 5'-hydroxylation pathway of NNN and will facilitate investigation of the presence of these adducts in laboratory animals treated with NNN or in people who use tobacco products.

While numerous microRNAs (miRNAs) have been reported to alter their expression levels in human lung cancer tissues compared with normal tissues, the function of these miRNAs and their contribution to the long process of lung cancer development remains largely unknown. We applied a tobacco-specific carcinogen-induced cancer model to investigate the involvement of miRNAs in early lung cancer development, which could also provide information on potential, early biomarkers of lung cancers. Male F344 rats were first chronically treated with 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), a carcinogen present in tobacco products, for up to 20 weeks. The expression profiles of miRNAs in rat lungs were then determined. As measured by miRNA microarrays and confirmed by Northern blot and real-time polymerase chain reaction analyses, NNK treatment reduced the expression of a number of miRNAs, such as miR-101, miR-126*, miR-199 and miR-34. Significantly, these miRNAs overlap with previously published reports on altered miRNA expression in human lung cancer samples. These miRNAs might, therefore, represent early-response miRNAs that signify the molecular changes associated with pulmonary tumorigenesis. Moreover, we identified cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2A3, a critical enzyme in rat lungs that activates NNK to render it carcinogenic, as a potential target of miR-126*. NNK treatment in rats repressed miR-126* but induced CYP2A3 expression, a mechanism that may potentiate the oncogenic effects of NNK.

We have previously generated convincing evidence that combinations of N-acetyl-S-(N-2-phenethylthiocarbamoyl)-L-cysteine (PEITC-NAC; 3 μmol/g diet) and myo-inositol (MI; 56 μmol/g diet) were significantly more effective than the individual compounds as inhibitors of tobacco smoke carcinogen–induced lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice. In this study, we further investigated the efficacy of combinations of PEITC-NAC (9 or 15 μmol/g diet) and MI (56 μmol/g diet). Female A/J mice were treated with a mixture of the tobacco smoke carcinogens 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone and benzo[a]pyrene by gavage once weekly for 8 weeks. PEITC-NAC plus MI was given in the diet beginning at 1 day after the 4th of eight carcinogen treatments (temporal sequence A) or 1 week after the last carcinogen treatment (temporal sequence B). Regardless of the dose of carcinogen or PEITC-NAC plus MI, or temporal sequence, administration of PEITC-NAC plus MI significantly reduced the multiplicity of gross tumors and, in most instances, adenocarcinoma. PEITC-NAC plus MI was particularly effective against bigger tumors. The observed inhibition of lung tumorigenesis by PEITC-NAC plus MI was attributed, at least partly, to inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis. These results clearly show the efficacy of PEITC-NAC plus MI in the prevention of tobacco carcinogen–induced lung adenocarcinoma in A/J mice and provide a basis for future evaluation of PEITC-NAC plus MI in clinical trials as a chemopreventive agent for current and former smokers.

We tested the chemopreventive efficacy of indole-3-carbinol (I3C), a constituent of Brassica vegetables, and its major condensation product, 3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM), against lung tumorigenesis induced by a mixture of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in A/J mice. The mixture of NNK plus BaP (2 μmol each) was administered by gavage as eight weekly doses, whereas I3C (112 μmol/g diet) and DIM (2 and 30 μmol/g diet in experiments 1 and 2, respectively) were given in the diet for 23 weeks beginning at 50% of carcinogen treatment. I3C reduced NNK plus BaP–induced tumor multiplicity by 78% in experiment 1 and 86% in experiment 2; the respective reductions in tumor multiplicity by DIM were 5% and 66%. Using a quantitative proteomics method, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) coupled with mass spectrometry, we identified and quantified at least 250 proteins in lung tissues. Of these proteins, nine showed differences in relative abundance in lung tissues of carcinogen-treated versus untreated mice: fatty acid synthase, transketolase, pulmonary surfactant-associated protein C (SP-C), l-plastin, annexin A1, and haptoglobin increased, whereas transferrin, α-1-antitrypsin, and apolipoprotein A-1 decreased. Supplementation of the diet of carcinogen-treated mice with I3C reduced the level of SP-C, l-plastin, annexin A1, and haptoglobin to that of untreated controls. These results were verified using immunoblotting. We show here that tumor-associated signature proteins are increased during NNK plus BaP–induced lung carcinogenesis, and I3C inhibits this effect, suggesting that the lung tumor chemopreventive activity of I3C might be related to modulation of carcinogen-induced alterations in protein levels. [Cancer Res 2007;67(13):6502–11]

Previous studies have shown that the minor tobacco alkaloid myosmine (5) reacts with NaNO2 in the presence of acid to yield 4-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (HPB, 8) via 4-(3-pyridyl)-4-oxobutanediazohydroxide (7). Intermediate 7 is also formed in the metabolism of the tobacco-specific nitrosamines N'-nitrosonornicotine (NNN, 1) and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK, 2), resulting in pyridyloxobutylation of DNA and Hb. These pyridyloxobutyl adducts can be quantified by analyzing HPB released upon acid treatment of DNA or base treatment of Hb. Quantitation of HPB-releasing DNA and Hb adducts has been used to assess the metabolic activation of NNN and NNK in smokers and smokeless tobacco users. Because myosmine is found in the diet as well as in tobacco products, it has been suggested that nitrosation of myosmine could lead to the formation of HPB-releasing adducts in people not exposed to tobacco products. We investigated the nitrosation of myosmine in vitro and in vivo in rats. The reaction of myosmine with NaNO2 under acidic conditions produced HPB, as previously reported. A new product was identified as 3'-oximinomyosmine (11) based on its spectral properties. NNN was not detected. Groups of rats were treated with NNN, NNK, myosmine, NaNO2, or combinations of myosmine and NaNO2. HPB-releasing Hb and DNA adducts were clearly detected in the rats treated with NNN or NNK, but we found no evidence for production of these adducts from the combination of myosmine plus NaNO2. The results of this study do not support the hypothesis that exposure to dietary myosmine could lead to HPB-releasing DNA or Hb adducts in humans.

Effective chemopreventive agents are needed against lung cancer, the leading cause of cancer death. Results from our previous work showed that dietary dihydromethysticin (DHM) effectively blocked initiation of lung tumorigenesis by 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) in A/J mice, and it preferentially reduced 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL)-derived DNA adducts in lung. This study explored the mechanism(s) responsible for DHM's differential effects on NNK/NNAL-derived DNA damage by quantifying their metabolites in A/J mice. The results showed that dietary DHM had no effect on NNK or NNAL abundance in vivo, indicating that DHM does not affect NNAL formation from NNK. DHM had a minimal effect on cytochrome P450 2A5 (CYP2A5, which catalyzes NNK and NNAL bioactivation in A/J mouse lung), suggesting that it does not inhibit NNAL bioactivation. Dietary DHM significantly increased O-glucuronidated NNAL (NNAL-O-gluc) in A/J mice. Lung and liver microsomes from dietary DHM-treated mice showed enhanced activities for NNAL O-glucuronidation. These results overall support the notion that dietary DHM treatment increases NNAL detoxification, potentially accounting for its chemopreventive efficacy against NNK-induced lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice. The ratio of urinary NNAL-O-gluc and free NNAL may serve as a biomarker to facilitate the clinical evaluation of DHM-based lung cancer chemopreventive agents.

The tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK, 1) is a potent lung carcinogen in laboratory animals and is believed to play a key role in the development of lung cancer in smokers. Metabolic activation of NNK leads to the formation of pyridyloxobutyl DNA adducts, a critical step in its mechanism of carcinogenesis. In addition to DNA nucleobase adducts, DNA phosphate adducts can be formed by pyridyloxobutylation of the oxygen atoms of the internucleotidic phosphodiester linkages. We report the use of a liquid chromatography-nanoelectrospray ionization-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry technique to characterize 30 novel pyridyloxobutyl DNA phosphate adducts in calf thymus DNA (CT-DNA) treated with 4-(acetoxymethylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNKOAc, 2), a regiochemically activated form of NNK. A (15)N3-labeled internal standard was synthesized for one of the most abundant phosphate adducts, dCp[4-oxo-4-(3-pyridyl)butyl]dC (CpopC), and this standard was used to quantify CpopC and to estimate the levels of other adducts in the NNKOAc-treated CT-DNA. Formation of DNA phosphate adducts by NNK in vivo was further investigated in rats treated with NNK acutely (0.1 mmol/kg once daily for 4 days by subcutaneous injection) and chronically (5 ppm in drinking water for 10, 30, 50, and 70 weeks). This study provides the first comprehensive structural identification and quantitation of a panel of DNA phosphate adducts of a structurally complex carcinogen and chemical support for future mechanistic studies of tobacco carcinogenesis in humans.

There are major interindividual differences in carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolism in humans, and it has been hypothesized that these differences may be related to cancer risk in smokers and other exposed people. One important pathway of PAH metabolism involves the detoxification of the epoxide and diol epoxide metabolites by reaction with glutathione, catalyzed by glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs). Interindividual differences in these pathways have been examined by genotyping methods, investigating polymorphisms in GSTM1 and GSTP1. We are developing a phenotyping approach to assessing individual differences in PAH metabolism by quantifying human urinary metabolites of the ubiquitous PAH phenanthrene (1). In this study, we developed a method for quantitation of a mercapturic acid, N-acetyl-S-(9,10-dihydro-9-hydroxy-10-phenanthryl)-l-cysteine (PheO-NAC, 12), the end product of the reaction of phenanthrene-9,10-epoxide (11) with glutathione. [D(10)]PheO-NAC was added to the urine as internal standard, and the PheO-NAC fraction was enriched by solid-phase extraction. PheO-NAC was quantified by liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry with selected reaction monitoring. The detection limit was approximately 4 fmol/mL of urine. PheO-NAC was detected in the urine of 46 of 104 smokers, mean (S.D.) 57.9 +/- 144 fmol/mL. PheO-NAC was detected significantly more frequently (P0.0001) in subjects who were GSTM1 positive than in those who were GSTM1 null, and the levels of PheO-NAC were significantly higher in the GSTM1 positive subjects, consistent with a role for GSTM1 in the detoxification of phenanthrene-9,10-epoxide. There were no significant relationships between PheO-NAC levels and the occurrence of two GSTP1 polymorphisms. The results of this study provide the first evidence for a PAH-derived mercapturic acid in human urine and should be useful in the development of a phenotyping approach to assess individual differences in PAH metabolism.

The nicotine-derived tobacco-specific nitrosamine, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), is one of the most potent and abundant procarcinogens found in tobacco and tobacco smoke and is considered to be a causative agent for several tobacco-related cancers. Glucuronidation of the major metabolite of NNK, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL), has been implicated as an important mechanism for NNK detoxification. To characterize NNAL metabolism by N-glucuronidation in humans, high-pressure liquid chromatography was used to detect glucuronide conjugates of NNAL formed in human liver microsomes in vitro. In addition to peaks corresponding to the O-glucuronides of NNAL (NNAL-O-Gluc), a second series of peaks were observed in human liver microsomes that were identified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to be NNAL N-glucuronides (NNAL-N-Gluc). Microsomes prepared from liver specimens from individual subjects (n = 42) exhibited substantial variability in the levels of NNAL-N-Gluc (49-fold variability) and NNAL-O-Gluc (49-fold variability) formed in vitro. This variability was likely not due to differences in tissue quality, as substantial variability (5-fold) was also observed in the ratio of NNAL-N-Gluc/NNAL-O-Gluc formation, with a mean ratio of 1.7 in the 42 specimens. Liver microsomes from smokers (n = 14) exhibited no significant difference in the levels of either NNAL-N-Gluc or NNAL-O-Gluc formation, or in the ratio of NNAL-N-Gluc/NNAL-O-Gluc formation, as compared with liver microsomes from never smokers (n = 28). Overexpressed UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A4 exhibited significant levels of N-glucuronidating activity (V(max)/K(m) = 3.11 microl. min(-1). g(-1)) in vitro; no NNAL-N-glucuronide formation was detected for the 11 other overexpressed UGT enzymes tested in these studies. These results demonstrate the importance of N-glucuronidation in the metabolism of NNAL and the role of UGT1A4 in this pathway.

A mixture of dietary benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) and 2-phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) inhibits lung tumorigenesis by a mixture of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) in A/J mice. Previous studies indicated that inhibition of 4-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (HPB) releasing DNA adducts of NNK by PEITC in the lung was responsible for inhibition of tumorigenicity. We have now extended these investigations to F-344 rats treated with 2 p.p.m. B[a]P in the diet and 2 p.p.m. NNK in the drinking water. The effects of BITC (1 micromol/g diet), PEITC (3 micromol/g diet), and a mixture of BITC plus PEITC (1 and 3 micromol/g diet) on DNA and hemoglobin (Hb) adducts of B[a]P and NNK, and on two urinary metabolites of NNK, were examined. DNA adducts were quantified after 8 and 16 weeks of treatment. Hb adducts were quantified in blood samples withdrawn every 2 weeks. 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) and its glucuronide NNAL-Gluc were measured in urine every 4 weeks. PEITC or BITC plus PEITC significantly reduced levels of HPB releasing DNA adducts of NNK in lung at 8 and 16 weeks, but there was no effect of BITC. There were no effects of any of the treatments on levels of HPB releasing DNA adducts of NNK in liver, or on DNA adducts of B[a]P in either lung or liver. PEITC or BITC plus PEITC significantly inhibited the formation of Hb adducts of NNK from 2-12 weeks of treatment while there were no effects on Hb adducts of B[a]P. There was a significant increase in levels of NNAL and NNAL-Gluc in the urine of the rats treated with PEITC or BITC plus PEITC. These results demonstrate that dietary PEITC, or a mixture of BITC plus PEITC, inhibit the formation of HPB releasing adducts of NNK in the rodent lung, leading to inhibition of tumorigenesis.

4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) is a metabolite of the tobacco specific carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). NNAL is present in the blood and urine of people exposed to tobacco products and has carcinogenic activity in rodents similar to that of NNK. DNA adducts specific to NNAL have not been previously identified. Metabolic activation of NNAL by alpha-methyl hydroxylation, a pathway known to occur in rodent and human microsomes, would produce pyridylhydroxybutylating agents that could react with DNA. We investigated this possibility in the present study by allowing 4-(acetoxymethylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNALCH(2)OAc) to react with dGuo and DNA. Products were identified by HPLC with UV detection, liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS) and LC/ESI-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS/MS). In the dGuo reactions, selected ion monitoring for m/z 417, corresponding to pyridylhydroxybutylated dGuo, showed several peaks. One adduct was identified as 7-[1-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)but-4-yl]dGuo (21) by neutral thermal hydrolysis, which converted it to 7-[1-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)but-4-yl]Gua (22) and 4-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (16). Adduct 22 was identified by comparison of its LC/ESI-MS and LC/ESI-MS/MS properties to those of standard 22. Two other adducts, O(6)-[1-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)but-4-yl]dGuo (17) and N(2)-[1-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)but-4-yl]dGuo (19), were identified by comparison of their LC/ESI-MS and LC/ESI-MS/MS properties to those of standard 17 and 19. Further evidence for the identity of 17 and 19 was obtained by mild acid hydrolysis, which converted them to the corresponding Gua bases 18 and 20, identified by comparison to synthetic standards. Neutral thermal hydrolysis of DNA that had been reacted with NNALCH(2)OAc produced 22, identified by comparison to a standard. Adducts 17 and 19 were identified in enzyme hydrolysates of this DNA by comparison to standards. Thus, DNA that had been allowed to react with NNALCH(2)OAc contained adducts 17, 19, and 21. The results of this study provide markers for investigating the role of specific NNAL-DNA adducts in carcinogenesis by NNAL and NNK.

Chronic pulmonary inflammation has been consistently shown to increase the risk of lung cancer. Therefore, assessing the molecular links between the two diseases and identification of chemopreventive agents that inhibit inflammation-driven lung tumorigenesis is indispensable. Female A/J mice were treated with the tobacco smoke carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a potent inflammatory agent and constituent of tobacco smoke, and maintained on control diet or diet supplemented with the chemopreventive agents indole-3-carbinol (I3C) and/or silibinin (Sil). At the end of the study, mice were sacrificed and tumors on the surface of the lung were counted and gene expression levels in lung tissues were determined by RNA sequencing. The mean number of lung tumors induced by NNK and NNK + LPS was 5 and 15 tumors/mouse, respectively. Dietary supplementation with the combination of I3C and Sil significantly reduced the size and multiplicity (by 50 %) of NNK + LPS-induced lung tumors. Also, we found that 330, 2957, and 1143 genes were differentially regulated in mice treated with NNK, LPS, and NNK + LPS, respectively. The inflammatory response of lung tumors to LPS, as determined by the number of proinflammatory genes with altered gene expression or the level of alteration, was markedly less than that of normal lungs. Among 1143 genes differentially regulated in the NNK + LPS group, the expression of 162 genes and associated signaling pathways was significantly modulated by I3C and/or Sil + I3C. These genes include cytokines, chemokines, putative oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes and Ros1, AREG, EREG, Cyp1a1, Arntl, and Npas2. To our knowledge, this is the first report that provides insight into genes that are differentially expressed during inflammation-driven lung tumorigenesis and the modulation of these genes by chemopreventive agents.

Chronic inflammation is an important risk factor for lung cancer. Therefore, identification of chemopreventive agents that suppress inflammation-driven lung cancer is indispensable. We studied the efficacy of combinations of indole-3-carbinol (I3C) and silibinin (Sil), 20 µmol/g diet each, against mouse lung tumors induced by 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and driven by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a potent inflammatory agent and constituent of tobacco smoke. Mice treated with NNK + LPS developed 14.7±4.1 lung tumors/mouse, whereas mice treated with NNK + LPS and given combinations of I3C and Sil had 7.1±4.5 lung tumors/mouse, corresponding to a significant reduction of 52%. Moreover, the number of largest tumors (>1.0mm) was significantly reduced from 6.3±2.9 lung tumors/mouse in the control group to 1.0±1.3 and 1.6±1.8 lung tumors/mouse in mice given I3C + Sil and I3C alone, respectively. These results were paralleled by significant reductions in the level of proinflammatory and procarcinogenic proteins (pSTAT3, pIκBα and COX-2) and proteins that regulate cell proliferation (pAkt, cyclin D1, CDKs 2, 4, 6 and pRB). Further studies in premalignant bronchial cells showed that the antiproliferative effects of I3C + Sil were higher than the individual compounds and these effects were mediated by targeting cyclin D1, CDKs 2, 4 and 6 and pRB. I3C + Sil suppressed cyclin D1 by reducing its messenger RNA level and by enhancing its proteasomal degradation. Our results showed the potential lung cancer chemopreventive effects of I3C + Sil in smokers/former smokers with chronic pulmonary inflammatory conditions.

N'-Nitrosonornicotine (NNN) is present in significant quantities in tobacco and tobacco smoke and is believed to play an important role as a cause of cancer in people who use tobacco products. Biomarkers of NNN uptake in humans such as urinary metabolites would be useful for assessing cancer risk. Previous studies, carried out almost exclusively in rodents, have characterized urinary metabolites of NNN, but none of these would be suitable as a biomarkers of NNN uptake in humans. Therefore, we studied NNN metabolism in the patas monkey. Monkeys were treated intravenously with [5-(3)H]NNN, which has tritium in the pyridine ring. Blood and urine samples were collected at timed intervals. Six urinary metabolites were observed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and were identified by their spectral properties and/or comparison to appropriate standards as follows: metabolite (% of radioactivity eluting from HPLC +/- S.D., n = 3 monkeys); 4-hydroxy-4-(3-pyridyl)butyric acid (43.8 +/- 4.0); 4-oxo-4-(3-pyridyl) butyric acid (2.7 +/- 0.66); norcotinine (13.1 +/- 2.7); norcotinine-1N-oxide (16.5 +/- 1.3); 3'-hydroxynorcotinine (16.9 +/- 2.0); 3'-(O-beta-D-glucopyranuronosyl)hydroxynorcotinine (5.4 +/- 1.0); and unchanged NNN (0.63 +/- 0.15). The two major metabolites in serum were 4-hydroxy-4-(3-pyridyl)butyric acid and norcotinine. NNN was rapidly metabolized to 4-hydroxy-4-(3-pyridyl)butyric acid, whereas the formation of norcotinine and 3'-hydroxynorcotinine were somewhat delayed. The results of this study demonstrate substantial differences between NNN metabolism in the rodent and patas monkey. Metabolism of NNN to norcotinine and its derivatives was far more prevalent in the patas monkey than in the rat. 3'-Hydroxynorcotinine and its O-glucuronide may be formed from NNN via alpha-oximinonornicotine or isomyosmine. There was no evidence that it was formed via norcotinine, although this pathway could not be excluded. 3'-Hydroxynorcotinine could potentially be a biomarker of NNN uptake in humans.

Isothiocyanates, their N-acetylcysteine conjugates, and myo-inositol (MI) are inhibitors of lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice. However, chemoprevention by combinations of these compounds in different temporal sequences has not been examined. This is important for developing practical approaches to lung cancer chemoprevention in smokers and ex-smokers. We used a tumor model in which A/J mice are treated with 8 weekly doses of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) plus 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and killed 19 weeks after the final treatment. In Experiment 1, isothiocyanates or their N-acetylcysteine conjugates were added to the diet (1 or 3 micro mol/g) from 1 week before until 1 week after carcinogen treatment. The compounds were 2-phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC), 3-phenylpropyl isothiocyanate (PPITC), N-acetyl-S-(N-benzyl-thiocarbamoyl)-L-cysteine (BITC-NAC), N-acetyl-S-(N-2-phenethylthiocarbamoyl)-L-cysteine (PEITC-NAC), and N-acetyl-S-(N-3-phenylpropylthiocarbamoyl)-L-cysteine (PPITC-NAC). Significant reductions in lung tumor multiplicity were observed in mice treated with PEITC, PEITC-NAC, PPITC and PPITC-NAC. PEITC-NAC was chosen for combination studies with MI (Experiment 2). Mice were treated with B[a]P plus NNK without or with PEITC-NAC (3 micro mol/g diet), MI (55.5 micro mol/g diet), or PEITC-NAC plus MI (3 micro mol plus 55.5 micro mol/g diet). Different temporal sequences of dietary additions were investigated: carcinogen treatment phase; post-carcinogen treatment phase; entire experiment; 50% of carcinogen treatment phase until termination; and 75% of carcinogen treatment phase until termination. All treatments reduced lung tumor multiplicity except PEITC-NAC post-carcinogen or from 75% of the carcinogen treatment phase. Reduction of lung tumor multiplicity by PEITC-NAC plus MI was greater than that in the mice treated with the agents alone in all temporal sequences. When all results were combined, PEITC-NAC plus MI was significantly more effective than the agents alone. There was a significant trend for reduction in lung tumor multiplicity with increased duration of treatment by the chemopreventive agents. These results provide a basis for further development of mixtures of PEITC-NAC and MI for chemoprevention of lung cancer.

3To whom correspondence should be addressed 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) is a chiral compound, and the primary metabolite of 4(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), a major carcinogen in tobacco smoke. The goal of the present work was to study the pharmacokinetics and stereoselective metabolism and tissue retention of NNK and NNAL in the rat. Groups of rats were dosed with [5- 3 H]NNK (n 3) or racemic [5- 3 H]NNAL (n 3) at a target dose of 8.45 µmol/kg and were killed at selected time points for tissue collection. Separate groups of rats (n 5 per group) received the same dose of either NNK or NNAL and serial sampling of blood, bile and urine was carried out over 24 h. All samples were analyzed by C18 reversed-phase HPLC with gradient elution and radioflow detection. A gas chromatograph‐thermal energy analyzer (GC‐TEA) was used to separate the (R)-/(S)-NNAL enantiomers. Racemic NNAL and NNK had large volumes of distribution (321 137 ml for NNK and 2772 1423 ml for NNAL) and similar total body clearances (12.8 2.0 ml/min for NNK and 8.6 2.6 ml/min for NNAL). The results indicated that the enantiomers of NNAL are stereoselectively metabolized and excreted. The glucuronide of (R)-NNAL, ((R)-NNAL-Gluc) was identified as the major metabolite in the bile after administration of either NNK or NNAL. (R)-NNAL was the major NNAL enantiomer in the bile or urine samples. At 24 h after racemic NNAL administration, NNAL comprised an average of 75.4% of total radioactivity in the lung with an (S)-/(R)-ratio of >20. The stereoselective localization of (S)-NNAL to lung tissue may contribute to the lung selectivity of NNK carcinogenesis. The present studies suggest a need to look beyond metabolic activation as the sole mechanism for lung carcinogenesis.

4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) is metabolized to enantiomers of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL), found in the urine of virtually all people exposed to tobacco products. We assessed the carcinogenicity in male F-344 rats of (R)-NNAL (5 ppm in drinking water), (S)-NNAL (5 ppm), NNK (5 ppm) and racemic NNAL (10 ppm) and analyzed DNA adduct formation in lung and pancreas of these rats after 10, 30, 50 and 70 weeks of treatment. All test compounds induced a high incidence of lung tumors, both adenomas and carcinomas. NNK and racemic NNAL were most potent; (R)-NNAL and (S)-NNAL had equivalent activity. Metastasis was observed from primary pulmonary carcinomas to the pancreas, particularly in the racemic NNAL group. DNA adducts analyzed were O (2)-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]thymidine (O (2)-POB-dThd), 7-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]guanine(7-POB-Gua),O (6)-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]deoxyguanosine(O (6)-POB-dGuo),the 4-(3-pyridyl)-4-hydroxybut-1-yl(PHB)adductsO (2)-PHB-dThd and 7-PHB-Gua, O (6)-methylguanine (O (6)-Me-Gua) and 4-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (HPB)-releasing adducts. Adduct levels significantly decreased with time in the lungs of rats treated with NNK. Pulmonary POB-DNA adducts and O (6)-Me-Gua were similar in rats treated with NNK and (S)-NNAL; both were significantly greater than in the (R)-NNAL rats. In contrast, pulmonary PHB-DNA adduct levels were greatest in the rats treated with (R)-NNAL. Total pulmonary DNA adduct levels were similar in (S)-NNAL and (R)-NNAL rats. Similar trends were observed for DNA adducts in the pancreas, but adduct levels were significantly lower than in the lung. The results of this study clearly demonstrate the potent pulmonary carcinogenicity of both enantiomers of NNAL in rats and provide important new information regarding DNA damage by these compounds in lung and pancreas.

We have previously shown that kava and its flavokavain-free Fraction B completely blocked 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)-induced lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice with a preferential reduction in NNK-induced O (6)-methylguanine (O (6)-mG). In this study, we first identified natural (+)-dihydromethysticin (DHM) as a lead compound through evaluating the in vivo efficacy of five major compounds in Fraction B on reducing O (6)-mG in lung tissues. (+)-DHM demonstrated outstanding chemopreventive activity against NNK-induced lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice with 97% reduction of adenoma multiplicity at a dose of 0.05mg/g of diet (50 ppm). Synthetic (±)-DHM was equally effective as the natural (+)-DHM in these bioassays while a structurally similar analog, (+)-dihydrokavain (DHK), was completely inactive, revealing a sharp in vivo structure-activity relationship. Analyses of an expanded panel of NNK-induced DNA adducts revealed that DHM reduced a subset of DNA adducts in lung tissues derived from 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL, the active metabolite of NNK). Preliminary 17-week safety studies of DHM in A/J mice at a dose of 0.5mg/g of diet (at least 10× its minimum effective dose) revealed no adverse effects, suggesting that DHM is likely free of kava's hepatotoxic risk. These results demonstrate the outstanding efficacy and promising safety margin of DHM in preventing NNK-induced lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice, with a unique mechanism of action and high target specificity.

Nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and its metabolite 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) play a crucial role in the induction of lung cancer, and NNAL-O-glucuronide formation and elimination are important steps in detoxification of these compounds. In the present study, we investigated the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) protein, MRP1 (ABCC1), as a candidate transporter responsible for NNAL-O-glucuronide export. MRP1 mediates the active transport of numerous GSH-, sulfate-, and glucuronide-conjugated organic anions and can transport certain xenobiotics by a mechanism that may involve co-transport with GSH. Using membrane vesicles prepared from transfected cells, we found that MRP1 transports [3H]NNAL-O-glucuronide but is dependent on the presence of GSH (K m 39 μm, V max 48 pmol mg−1 min−1). We also found that the sulfur atom in GSH was dispensable because transport was supported by the GSH analog, γ-glutamyl-α-aminobutyryl-glycine. Despite stimulation of NNAL-O-glucuronide transport by GSH, there was no detectable reciprocal stimulation of [3H]GSH transport. Moreover, whereas the MRP1 substrates leukotriene C4(LTC4) and 17β-estradiol 17β-(d-glucuronide) (E217βG) inhibited GSH-dependent uptake of [3H]NNAL-O-glucuronide, only [3H]LTC4 transport was inhibited by NNAL-O-glucuronide (+GSH) and the kinetics of inhibition were complex. A mutant form of MRP1, which transports LTC4but not E217βG, also did not transport NNAL-O-glucuronide suggesting a commonality in the binding elements for these two glucuronidated substrates, despite their lack of reciprocal transport inhibition. Finally, the related MRP2 transported NNAL-O-glucuronide with higher efficiency than MRP1 and unexpectedly, GSH inhibited rather than stimulated uptake. These studies provide further insight into the complex interactions of the MRP-related proteins with GSH and their conjugated organic anion substrates, and extend the range of xenotoxins transported by MRP1 and MRP2 to include metabolites of known carcinogens involved in the etiology of lung and other cancers.

Dietary myo-inositol is an effective inhibitor of lung tumor induction in mice, but no dose-response studies have been reported. We assessed the ability of various doses of dietary myo-inositol to inhibit lung tumor induction in female A/J mice treated with eight weekly doses of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) plus 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) (3 micromol of each by gavage), then killed 18 weeks later. In Expt. 1, groups of 20 mice each were treated with myo-inositol at concentrations of 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.125, 0.0625, 0.03125, and 0% in AIN-93 diet for 1 week prior to, during, and for 1 week after the carcinogen administration period. In Expt. 2, groups of 20 mice each were treated with the same concentrations of myo-inositol in the diet as in Expt. 1, except this diet was administered from 1 week after carcinogen administration until termination. There were no effects of myo-inositol on lung tumor incidence, which was 100% in all groups treated with BaP plus NNK. However, myo-inositol significantly decreased lung tumor multiplicity in both experiments. In Expt. 1, significant reductions of 28.9 and 33.0% were observed at the 1 and 0.5% doses of myo-inositol, but not at the lower doses. In Expt. 2, a significant reduction of 48.4% was observed at the 1% dose. In both Expts. 1 and 2, there was a significant dose trend for inhibition (P

Nicotine and cotinine are metabolized to pyridine-N-glucuronides in humans. This suggests that the analogous metabolites of the carcinogenic nicotine-related nitrosamines N'-nitrosonornicotine (NNN), 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) should also be formed in people exposed to these compounds via tobacco products. We describe the synthesis of the appropriate pyridine-N-glucuronides: pyridyl-N-beta-D-glucopyranuronosyl-N'-nitrosonornicotinium inner salt (NNN-N-Gluc, 8), 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl-N-beta-D-glucopyranuronosyl)-1-butanonium inner salt (NNK-N-Gluc, 9), and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl-N-beta-D-glucopyranuronosyl)-1-butanolonium inner salt (NNAL-N-Gluc, 10). The starting material, methyl 2,3,4-tri-O-acetyl-1-bromo-1-deoxy-alpha-D-glucopyranuronate (1), is prepared in two steps from glucuronolactone. Reactions of 1 with racemic NNN (2), NNK (3), or racemic NNAL (4) are carried out with no solvent and the crude products are deprotected by treatment with base, giving the desired N-glucuronides 8-10 in 5-7% overall yield after HPLC purification. The N-glucuronides were characterized by (1)H NMR, including COSY and NOESY spectra, and by MS and MS/MS. NNN-N-Gluc exists as a 52:48 ratio of (E)- and (Z)-rotamers, which were partially separated by HPLC. This ratio was surprisingly similar to the (E):(Z) ratio for NNN itself suggesting hydrogen bonding of the (Z)-nitroso oxygen atom to the 2' '-hydroxyl group of the glucuronide moiety. Partial HPLC separations of the (E)- and (Z)-rotamers of NNK-N-Gluc and the (E)- and (Z)-rotamers as well as the (R)- and (S)-diastereomers of NNAL-N-Gluc were also achieved. The standards prepared in this study as well as the HPLC conditions developed for their separation will be important for analysis of these compounds in human urine.

4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) is a major metabolite of the tobacco-specific lung carcino- gen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). NNAL has a chiral center at the 1-position, but little is known about the stereochemical aspects of its metabolic formation from NNK or its further metabolism. We investigated the metabolism of NNK to enantiomers of NNAL in microsomes and cytosol from male F-344 rat liver and lung, female A/J mouse liver and lung, and human liver, as well as in red blood cells from rats, mice and humans. In all systems, (S)-NNAL was the predominant enantiomer formed, ranging from 90 to 98% in the rodent tissues and averaging 64, 90 and >95% in human liver microsomes, liver cytosol and red blood cells, respectively. In rat liver microsomes, (R)- and (S)-NNAL were metabolized at similar rates by alpha-hydroxylation, considered to be the major metabolic activation pathway of NNAL. Pyridine-N-oxidation and adenosine dinucleotide phosphate adduct formation also occurred at similar rates from both enantiomers, while reoxidation to NNK was favored with (S)-NNAL as substrate. In rat lung microsomes, (S)-NNAL was more rapidly metabolized than (R)-NNAL by all oxidative pathways. In human liver microsomes, there were no significant differences in the rates of alpha-hydroxylation, pyridine-N-oxidation and reoxidation to NNK between the two enantiomers. The results of this study demonstrate that (S)-NNAL, the more tumorigenic enantiomer in mice, is preferentially formed from NNK in rodent and human tissues, and is a substrate for oxidative metabolism in rodent and human tissue microsomes.

The cancer chemopreventive agent 1,4-phenylenebis(methylene)selenocyanate (p-XSC) inhibits various chemically induced tumors in laboratory animals. We examined the effects of p-XSC and its o- and m-isomers on xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in vivo. Six-week-old female CD rats were given diets containing o-, m- or p-XSC (5 or 15 p.p.m. as Se), or equimolar amounts (30 or 90 micromol/kg) of 1,4-phenylenebis(methylene)thiocyanate (p-XTC, the sulfur analog of p-XSC) for 1 week. At termination, substrate-specific assays for enzymes of xenobiotic metabolism in various organs were performed. Overall, o-XSC was a more potent enzyme inducer than m- or p-XSC. In hepatic microsomes, o-XSC significantly induced CYP2E1 as detected by increased N-nitrosodimethylamine N-demethylase activity and also by western blot. The activities of CYP1A1 (ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase) and CYP1A2 (methoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase) were not affected, but a significant decrease in the activity of CYP2B1 (pentoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase) was observed at the 15 p.p.m. Se level of o-XSC. With the m- and p-XSC isomers or with p-XTC, no significant effect on phase I enzymes was noted. Hepatic UDP-glucuronosyltransferase activities were increased 1.5- to 2-fold by all three XSC isomers at the higher dose level (15 p.p.m. Se), but not by p-XTC; o-XSC again was the most effective. All three XSC isomers were found to increase the alpha, mu and pi isozymes of glutathione S-transferases in the liver, kidney, lung, colon and mammary gland to varying degrees. The XSC isomers also significantly increased glutathione peroxidase in the colon and mammary gland. Although o-XSC was the most powerful in stimulating the enzyme activities, especially in the liver, atomic absorption spectrometry showed that the selenium levels were highest in organs of rats given p-XSC. Thus, the level of tissue distribution of the XSC isomers and/or their metabolite(s) does not correlate with their effects on enzyme activities. The present study demonstrates that individual XSC isomers are capable of modulating specific phase I and/or phase II enzymes involved in the activation and/or detoxification of chemical carcinogens, and provides some mechanistic basis for the cancer chemopreventive efficacy of these organoselenium compounds at the stage of tumor initiation.

The potential activities of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), myo-inositol, curcumin, esculetin, resveratrol and lycopene-enriched tomato oleoresin (LTO) as chemopreventive agents against lung tumor induction in A/J mice by the tobacco smoke carcinogens benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and 4-(methyl-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) were evaluated. Groups of 20 A/J mice were treated weekly by gavage with a mixture of BaP and NNK (3 micromol each) for 8 weeks, then sacrificed 26 weeks after the first carcinogen treatment. Mice treated with BHA (20 or 40 micromol) by gavage 2 h before each dose of BaP and NNK had significantly reduced lung tumor multiplicity. Treatment with BHA (20 or 40 micromol) by gavage weekly or with dietary BHA (2000 ppm), curcumin (2000 ppm) or resveratrol (500 ppm) from 1 week after carcinogen treatment until termination had no effect on lung tumor multiplicity. Treatment with dietary myo-inositol (30,000 ppm) or esculetin (2000 ppm) from 1 week after carcinogen treatment until termination significantly reduced lung tumor multiplicity, with the effect of myo-inositol being significantly greater than that of esculetin. Treatment with dietary LTO (167, 1667 or 8333 ppm) from 1 week before carcinogen treatment until termination had no effect on lung tumor multiplicity. The results of this study demonstrate that BHA is an effective inhibitor of BaP plus NNK-induced lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice when administered during the period of carcinogen treatment and that, among the compounds tested, myo-inositol is most effective after carcinogen treatment.

α-Acetoxy-N-nitrosopyrrolidine (α-acetoxyNPYR) is a stable precursor to α-hydroxyNPYR, the initial product of metabolism and proposed proximate carcinogen of N-nitrosopyrrolidine (NPYR). Crotonalde...

Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is the method of choice for analysis of covalent modification of DNA. DNA adductomics is an extension of this approach allowing for the screening for both known and unknown DNA adducts. In the research reported here, a new high-resolution/accurate mass MS(n) methodology has been developed representing an important advance for the investigation of in vivo biological samples and for the assessment of DNA damage from various human exposures. The methodology was tested and optimized using a mixture of 18 DNA adducts representing a range of biologically relevant modifications on all four bases and using DNA from liver tissue of mice exposed to the tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). In the latter experiment, previously characterized adducts, both expected and unexpected, were observed.

The metabolism and DNA binding studies of mono-NP isomers under identical conditions were conducted, as an initial investigation, in order to provide an understanding for the higher carcinogenic activity of 4-NP in the rat mammary gland. Urinary and fecal excretion patterns of 4-NP and 1-NP 24 h following administration to female CD rats (i.p.; 24 mg/kg body weight; 1.55 mCi/rat) were similar but higher than those of 2-NP. The identified metabolites were formed via nitroreduction and ring oxidation pathways. Neither the excretion patterns nor the nature of the metabolites readily explained why the mammary tumorigenic activity of these three isomers varied. Although overall levels of mono-NP bound to liver DNA did not account for the observed differences in the biological activity, further HPLC analysis of the liver DNA hydrolysates showed that only 4-NP had yielded putative multiple DNA adducts; none were detected in the case of 1-NP and 2-NP. 1-, 2-, and 4-NP were found to bind to mammary DNA at levels of 0.6, 0.3, and 2.1 pmol/mg DNA, respectively. The structure of DNA adducts in the mammary gland and in the liver of female CD rats following the i.p. administration of 4-NP has not been identified. Collectively, the results of this preliminary study indicate that the difference in levels of DNA binding in the mammary gland in vivo may reflect why 4-NP has higher carcinogenic activity.

Background: Brassica vegetable consumption may confer a protective effect against cancer, possibly attributable to their glucosinolates. Glucobrassicin is a predominant glucosinolate and is the precursor of indole-3-carbinol (I3C), a compound with anticancer effects. However, objective assessments of I3C uptake from Brassica vegetables have not been successful. Methods: We conducted a randomized, crossover trial to test whether 3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM, a metabolite of I3C) excreted in the urine after consumption of raw Brassica vegetables with divergent glucobrassicin concentrations is a marker of I3C uptake from such foods. Twenty-five subjects were fed 50 g of either raw “Jade Cross” Brussels sprouts (high glucobrassicin concentration) or “Blue Dynasty” cabbage (low glucobrassicin concentration) once daily for 3 days. All urine was collected for 24 hours after vegetable consumption each day. After a washout period, subjects crossed over to the alternate vegetable. Urinary DIM was measured using a novel liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry–selected reaction monitoring (LC-ESI-MS/MS-SRM) method with [2H2]DIM as internal standard. Results: Urinary DIM was consistently and significantly higher after Brussels sprouts feeding than after cabbage feeding, as evidenced by an average difference of 8.73 pmol/mg creatinine (95% confidence interval, 5.36–12.10; P = 0.00002). Conclusion: We have successfully quantified urinary DIM after uptake of I3C from food, and demonstrated that differences in glucobrassicin exposure are reflected in urinary DIM levels. Impact: Our LC-ESI-MS/MS-SRM method and the results of our study indicate urinary DIM is a measure of I3C uptake from Brassica vegetables, a finding that can be utilized in prospective epidemiologic and chemoprevention studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev; 23(2); 282–7. ©2013 AACR.

Bioactive compounds from plant foods are intensely investigated for effects on disease prevention. β-Glucuronidase/arylsulfatase from Helix pomatia (snail) is commonly used when quantifying exposure to metabolized dietary components. However, we describe here the contamination of multiple formulations of this enzyme preparation with 3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM), 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP), and 5-methoxypsoralen (5-MOP), bioactives from cruciferous and apiaceous vegetables under investigation as putative cancer chemopreventive agents. We identified an Escherichia coli preparation of β-glucuronidase as free from contamination with any of the compounds tested. These results demonstrate the importance of selecting appropriate enzyme preparations when quantifying naturally occurring, trace level compounds in biological fluids.

Currently, smokeless tobacco products are being proposed as an alternative mode of tobacco use associated with less harm. All of these products contain the tobacco-specific carcinogen N′-nitrosonornicotine (NNN). The major form of NNN in tobacco products is (S)-NNN, shown in this study to induce a total of 89 benign and malignant oral cavity tumors in a group of 20 male F-344 rats treated chronically with 14 p.p.m. in the drinking water. The opposite enantiomer (R)-NNN was weakly active, but synergistically enhanced the carcinogenicity of (S)-NNN. Thus, (S)-NNN is identified for the first time as a strong oral cavity carcinogen in smokeless tobacco products and should be significantly reduced or removed from these products without delay in order to prevent debilitating and deadly oral cavity cancer in people who use them.

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in the world. Evidence suggests that lung cancer could originate from mutations accumulating in a subpopulation of self-renewing cells, lung stem cells. Aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) is a marker of stem cells. To investigate the presence of DNA modifications in these cells, we isolated ALDH-positive lung cells from A/J mice exposed to the lung carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone. Using LC-NSI-HRMS/MS-PRM, O(6)-methyl-G, 7-POB-G, and O(2)-POB-dT were positively identified in ALDH-positive cell DNA. This is the first example of detection of carcinogen-DNA adducts in lung stem cells, supporting the hypothesis of their role in lung carcinogenesis.

The nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) is a known human carcinogen. It generates methyl and pyridyloxobutyl DNA adducts. The role of the methyl DNA adducts has been well-established in the tumorigenic properties of NNK. However, the role of the pyridyloxobutyl DNA adducts is unclear. Four pyridyloxobutyl DNA adducts have been characterized: 7-[4-3-(pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]guanine (7-pobG), O²-[4-3-(pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]-cytodine (O²-pobC), O²-[4-3-(pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1yl]thymidine (O²-pobdT), and O⁶-[4-3-(pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]-2'-deoxyguanosine (O⁶-pobdG). Mutagenic O⁶-pobdG is thought to contribute to the tumorigenic properties of the pyridyloxobutylation pathway. It is repaired by O⁶-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase (AGT). To explore the role of O⁶-pobdG formation and repair in the tumorigenic properties of NNK, A/J mice were given single or multiple doses of the model pyridyloxobutylating agent 4-(acetoxymethyl-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNKOAc) in the presence or absence of the AGT depletor, O⁶-benzylguanine. Levels of the four pyridyloxobutyl DNA adducts were measured in the lung at 8, 48, or 96 h following treatment and compared to the lung tumorigenic activity of these treatments. AGT depletion had only a modest effect on the levels of O⁶-pobdG and did not increase tumor formation. Three pyridyloxobutyl DNA adducts, 7-pobG, O²-pobdT, and O⁶-pobdG, persisted in lung DNA at significant levels for up to 96 h post-treatment, suggesting that all three adducts may contribute to the tumorigenic properties of NNK.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cigarette smoke are among the most likely causes of lung cancer. PAHs require metabolic activation to initiate the carcinogenic process. Phenanthrene (Phe), a noncarcinogenic PAH, was used as a surrogate of benzo[α]pyrene and related PAHs to study the metabolic activation of PAHs in smokers. A dose of 10 μg of deuterated Phe ([D10]Phe) was administered to 25 healthy smokers in a crossover design, either as an oral solution or by smoking cigarettes containing [D10]Phe. Phe was deuterated to avoid interference from environmental Phe. Intensive blood and urine sampling was performed to quantitate the formation of deuterated r-1,t-2,3,c-4-tetrahydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrophenanthrene ([D10]PheT), a biomarker of the diol epoxide metabolic activation pathway. In both the oral and smoking arms approximately 6% of the dose was metabolically converted to diol epoxides, with a large intersubject variability in the formation of [D10]PheT observed. Two diagnostic plots were developed to identify subjects with large systemic exposure and significant lung contribution to metabolic activation. The combination of the two plots led to the identification of subjects with substantial local exposure. These subjects produced, in one single pass of [D10]Phe through the lung, a [D10]PheT exposure equivalent to the systemic exposure of a typical subject and may be an indicator of lung cancer susceptibility. Polymorphisms in PAH-metabolizing genes of the 25 subjects were also investigated. The integration of phenotyping and genotyping results indicated that GSTM1-null subjects produced approximately 2-fold more [D10]PheT than did GSTM1-positive subjects.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate, a bioactive signaling molecule with diverse cellular functions, is irreversibly degraded by the endoplasmic reticulum enzyme sphingosine 1-phosphate lyase, generating trans-2-hexadecenal and phosphoethanolamine. We recently demonstrated that trans-2-hexadecenal causes cytoskeletal reorganization, detachment, and apoptosis in multiple cell types via a JNK-dependent pathway. These findings and the known chemistry of related α,β-unsaturated aldehydes raise the possibility that trans-2-hexadecenal may interact with additional cellular components. In this study, we show that it reacts readily with deoxyguanosine and DNA to produce the diastereomeric cyclic 1,N2-deoxyguanosine adducts 3-(2-deoxy-β- d -erythro-pentofuranosyl)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-8R-hydroxy-6R-tridecylpyrimido[1,2-a]purine-10(3H)one and 3-(2-deoxy-β- d -erythro-pentofuranosyl)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-8S-hydroxy-6S-tridecylpyrimido[1,2-a]purine-10(3H)one. Thus, our findings suggest that trans-2-hexadecenal produced endogenously by sphingosine 1-phosphate lyase can react directly with DNA forming aldehyde-derived DNA adducts with potentially mutagenic consequences.

Human risk assessment from exposure to nitropolynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (NO2-PAH) has not been clearly defined, despite the widespread occurrence of such agents in the environment and their possible involvement in the etiology of some human cancers. This study was conducted since methods to determine exposure to and uptake of metabolically activated NO2-PAH are lacking. 1-Nitropyrene (1-NP), the most abundant and most extensively studied NO2-PAH, was found to bind to rat albumin at a level of 0.04 +/- 0.01% (mean +/- SD, n = 3) of the dose administered by gavage; the binding was linear over five orders of magnitude (P < 0.01). The adducts cleared at a rate (half-life = 60 h) similar to that of the unmodified rat albumin. Chromatographic analysis revealed that albumin adducts could be resolved further into a major and a minor component. Mild acid hydrolysis of the major 1-NP-albumin adduct yielded phenolic derivatives that, when subjected to acetylation, produced a material with a mass spectrum similar to that of a synthetically prepared mixture, consisting of more than one isomer, 1-acetylamino-X,Y-diacetoxypyrenes (chromatographic separation of the individual isomers was not achieved). Thus, this phenolic material that is released upon the acid treatment of albumin adducts may be a suitable indicator(s) for monitoring exposure to and metabolic activation of 1-NP.

Lung cancer is the most deadly malignancy in the US. Chemoprevention is potentially a complementary approach to smoking cessation for lung cancer control. Recently, we reported that a commercially available form of kava extract significantly inhibits 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)-induced lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice at a dose of 10 mg per gram diet. In the present study, we examined the dose-dependent lung tumor inhibitory activities of kava and investigated potential active constituent(s). Mice treated with carcinogen alone contained 12.1±5.8 lung adenomas per mouse 22 weeks after final carcinogen administration. Mice that were fed diets containing kava at dosages of 1.25, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/g of diet had 8.4±3.5, 6.6±3.5, 4.3±2.4, and 3.8±2.3 lung adenomas per mouse, respectively. This corresponds to a reduction of 31%, 46%, 65% and 69% in tumor multiplicity, which were all statistically significant (p < 0.05). Analyses of lung adenoma tissues derived from kava-treated animals revealed that kava significantly inhibited adenoma cell proliferation while it had no detectable effect on cell death, indicating that kava primarily suppressed lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice via inhibition of cell proliferation. Flavokawains A, B, and C, three chalcone-based components from kava, demonstrated greatly reduced chemopreventive efficacies even at concentrations much higher than their natural abundance, suggesting that they alone were unlikely to be responsible for kava's chemopreventive activity. Kava at all dosages and treatment regimens did not induce detectable adverse effects, particularly with respect to liver. Specifically, kava treatment showed no effect on liver integrity indicator enzymes or liver weight, indicating that kava may be potentially safe for long-term chemopreventive application.

As shown earlier p-XSC inhibits DMBA-induced mammary cancer in female CD rats. This inhibition is due, in part, to inhibition of DMBA-DNA adduct formation in the target organ. We have now utilized the DMBA-DNA binding assay to evaluate the chemopreventive potential of positional isomers of XSC (o-, m- and p-XSC) applied at selenium doses of 5 and 15 ppm; p-XTC, the sulfur analog of p-XSC, was used at an equimolar dose to determine whether selenium is required for the observed inhibitory effect. Selenium and sulfur compounds were administered in a semipurified high-fat diet (23.5% corn oil). Rats were fed for 1 week prior to oral administration of a single dose of [H-3]DMBA (5 mg/rat); animals were sacrificed 24 h later, DNA was isolated from mammary fat pads and levels of total binding were determined. All agents produced a dose-dependent inhibition of DMBA-DNA binding in the mammary tissues. The inhibition at 5, respectively 15 ppm Se in the form of XSC isomers and at 30 mu M, respectively 90 mu M in the form of p-XTC was: o-XSC (27%, 42%); m-XSC (32%, 47%); p-XSC (22%, 29%); and p-XTC (10%, 20%); only inhibition by dietary o-XSC and m-XSC at 15 ppm Se reached statistical significance (p

In an extension of our earlier studies, we examined the inhibitory effects of N-acetyl-S-(N-2-phenethylthiocarbamoyl)-l-cysteine (PEITC-NAC), myo-inositol (MI) and indole-3-carbinol (I3C) or 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM), alone and in combination, on 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) plus benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)-induced A/J mouse lung tumorigenesis and proliferation of A549 cells and human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) and relevant potential mechanisms. Mice treated with NNK plus BaP and fed non-supplemented diet had 13.0 + or - 4.1 lung tumors per mouse. Dietary feeding of mice with PEITC-NAC (5 mumol/g diet), I3C (5 mumol/g diet) or MI (56 mumol/g diet), beginning at 50% in the carcinogen treatment phase, significantly reduced tumor multiplicity to 8.2 + or - 2.0, 8.4 + or - 1.5 and 6.8 + or - 1.7 tumors per mouse, respectively. In mice given combinations of the chemopreventive agents, lung tumor multiplicity was significantly reduced to 6.3 + or - 2.2, 4.9 + or - 1.8, 4.8 + or - 1.9 and 3.6 + or - 1.4 by PEITC-NAC plus I3C, PEITC-NAC plus MI, I3C plus MI or PEITC-NAC plus I3C plus MI, respectively. Post-carcinogen administration of combinations of the agents also caused significant but weaker effects. Assessment of the anti-proliferative effects of the individual agents or their combinations showed significant reductions in the proliferation of cigarette smoke condensate (CSC)-pretreated HBEC (reduction by 30-41% at 48 h and 41-58% at 72 h) and A549 cells (30-43% at 48 h and 40-59% at 72 h), but not in dimethyl sulfoxide-pretreated HBEC. Combinatorial treatment with the agents also caused marked reductions in the activation of Akt, extracellular signal-regulated kinase and nuclear factor-kappaB in lung tumor tissues, CSC-pretreated HBEC and A549 cells. In conclusion, our studies demonstrated the promise of combinations of PEITC-NAC, I3C/DIM and MI for the chemoprevention of lung carcinogenesis in current and former smokers.

4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) is a lung-specific tobacco carcinogen. Metabolism is critical to its elimination given its lipophilic nature. Although NNK can be metabolized through detoxification pathways that safely eliminate it from the body, it can also be bioactivated, resulting in the formation of potentially carcinogenic DNA adducts. The isolated perfused rat lung (IPRL) system was used to determine the effect of NNK perfusate concentration (0.1 and 1.2 microM) on the formation and distribution of metabolites, the level of individual DNA adducts, and total covalent binding in the lung. Coadministration of the chemopreventive agent phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC; 20 microM) was also examined to determine its effect on NNK metabolism. NNK was readily metabolized in the IPRL system. In the 0.1 muM perfusions approximately 55% of metabolites formed were through detoxification pathways, whereas roughly 30% were the result of bioactivation pathways. An increase in NNK concentration increased the percentage of unmetabolized NNK and decreased the apparent metabolic clearance in the lung, but the metabolite profiles remained similar between concentrations. The addition of PEITC reduced the formation of oxidative metabolites and increased 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) formation and the percentage of unmetabolized NNK. PEITC also significantly decreased the formation of DNA adducts in the lung tissue. The level of O(2)-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]thymidine (O(2)-POB-dThd) and O(6)-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]-2'-deoxyguanosine (O(6)-POB-dGuo) decreased by 70 to 75%, and that of O(6)-methylguanine (O(6)-methyl-Gua) and 7-[4-(3-pyridyl)-4-oxobut-1-yl]guanine (7-POB-Gua) decreased by 40 to 45%. Pyridylhydroxybutyl-DNA adducts were not detected in any of the treatment groups. Thus, the IPRL system is useful in determining pulmonary metabolism and DNA adduct formation separate from other metabolizing organs.

Chemopreventive agents benzyl selenocyanate (BSC) and 1,4-phenylenebis(methylene)selenocyanate (p-XSC) were fed in NIH-07 diet to male and female F344 rats (4, 2, and 0.5 mg/kg/day for BSC and 20, 10, and 5 mg/kg/day for p-XSC) for 13 weeks. Weight gains were depressed for male and female rats fed 4 and 2 mg/kg/day BSC, females fed 0.5 mg/kg/day BSC, and male rats fed 20 and 10 mg/kg/day p-XSC. At necropsy, no clear treatment-related lesions were noted, but dose-dependent hepatomegaly was observed in both sexes of BSC and p-XSC groups. Plasma transaminases AST and ALT were elevated in the higher dose groups, while hemoglobin, HCT, and RBC were reduced in most BSC and some p-XSC treatment groups. Plasma glucose was reduced in BSC-treated males. Significant histologic findings included moderate to severe hepatic centrilobular hypertrophy with fatty change in all males and females in the 4 mg/kg/day BSC groups and in 9/15 males and 3/15 females in the 2 mg/kg/day BSC groups. Dose-dependent, mild centrilobular hypertrophy with minimal fatty change was observed in the mid- and low-dose BSC groups and in all p-XSC groups. Mild to moderate renal tubular and interstitial nephritis occurred in the 4 mg/kg/day male BSC group. Dietary maximum tolerated dose levels for chemoprevention studies are 0.5 mg/kg/day (3.0 ppm Se) for BSC and 5 mg/kg/day (32.5 ppm Se) for p-XSC, compared to literature values of 2-3 ppm Se for Na2SeO3.