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This experiment evaluated forage quality, total nutrient yield, water footprint, and growth performance of beef steers receiving protein supplements while grazing Teff grass ['Tiffany' Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter] over two consecutive growing seasons. Each year, four 2.66-ha irrigated paddocks (experimental units) were stocked with crossbred beef steers (n = 5 per paddock, initial BW = 289 ± 30 for yr 1; and n = 6, initial BW = 286 ± 23 for yr 2) in a randomized complete block design and stocked continuously for 63 d. Daily supplements [0.45 kg/d of cottonseed meal (Control) enough to avoid a negative ruminal N balance; and 0.50% mean paddock BW animal-daily (approximately 1.65 kg) of sorghum-dried distillers grains plus solubles, (DDGS)] were randomly assigned to two paddocks each. Supplement did not influence forage neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber, crude protein, or in vitro true digestibility (P ≥ 0.54), except for a tendency (P = 0.08) for a numerical increase in NDF content of paddocks with steers that received DDGS supplementation. Paddock nutrient-yields were similar (P ≥ 0.43) between supplement treatments. Supplementation with DDGS produced greater (P = 0.01) cattle shrunk average daily gain (ADG). Predicted teff dry matter intake (DMI), net energy for maintenance (NEm), and growth (NEg) (P ≤ 0.03) were greater with cattle offered Control treatment. Predicted total DMI was similar (P = 0.14) although predicted dietary NEm, NEg, gain:feed, and total BW gain were greater (P ≤ 0.02) with DDGS. Predicted forage intake was greater (P ≤ 0.05) for cattle offered Control treatment. Teff nutrients remaining on d 56 were similar (P = 0.33) between treatments. Water footprint for total production of forage nutrient components did not differ (P ≥ 0.12) by treatments. Nutrient yield and water use efficiency of continuously stocked teff grass was not affected by supplemental regimen. Using DDGS as a supplement may increase BW gain through increased nutrient utilization without hindering teff nutrient production on a continuous stocking system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social and institutional trust between two groups of dairy producers in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil was evaluated. The entity used in this comparison was the Rural Producers Association (RPA), in which two groups were formed: a) RPA members (AG); and b) RPA non-members (NAG). The questionnaire developed used model questions from the World Values Survey. Among a total of 38 producer-members of the RPA, 22 (58%) responded to the questionnaire. For the non-member producers, 44 were identified, while 39 (89%) responded to the questionnaire. To assess social trust, the following question was asked: "Generally speaking, would you say that people can be trusted or that we need to be very careful when dealing with people?". In AG, 81.8% of the producers responded that we need to be very careful when dealing with other people, and among the NAG producers, 87.2% also agreed with such a statement. Despite the lack of social trust in AG, 77.1% of the members fully or partially trust their association. To assess levels of trust in national institutions by producers, a question was asked as follows: "To what extent do you trust the institutions listed below?". For more than 50% of the NAG group, none of the institutions presented deserved full trust, reinforcing the lack of trust, as indicated in the previous question. For those in the NAG group that chose the option "I trust completely", the institutions opted were as follows: religious (46.2%), research institutions (43.6%), public universities (38.5%), and rural extension services (33.3%); while those opted as "I do not trust" were represented by political parties (82.1%), the municipal government (64.1%), and the national congress (61.5%). In the AG group, the institutions with the greatest levels of trust were the rural extension services (54.5%) and the RPA (54.5%), religious institutions (40.9%), public universities (40.9%), and research institutes 36.4%. Moreover, the institutions least trusted were political parties (63.6%), national congress (63.6%), municipal government (36.4%), and land organizations (36.4%). None of the producer groups were officially affiliated with political parties. An open-ended question was asked as follows: "What do you think about the current situation of the association, cooperative, or dairy in which you participate or commercialize milk with?" In the AG, 81.75% see RPA positively, and 18.25% believe that the association was in a bad situation and could even end. In the NAG, 59% of the producers commercialize milk in some type of organization (other than the RPA); in which among these, 43.47% have a negative image of such an organization in general. It is suggestive that regardless of the RPA participation, producers interviewed lack social trust. Future analysis is warranted to involve a multi-location and a broader population sampling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of live yeast and diet type (grower or finisher) offered to beef steers on feeding behavior were evaluated. Eight ruminally cannulated yearling beef steers (BW = 550 ± 20 kg) were used in a duplicated 4 × 4 Latin Square design and offered four dietary treatments to ad libitum intake, following a 2 × 2 factorial treatment arrangement: A) presence or not of live-yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae [2 × 1010 CFU/g (CNCM I-1077)]; and B) diet type. Diets (DM basis) contained 3% yellow-grease and mineral/vitamin supplement-adjusted. The grower [40% low-quality alfalfa-hay (LQ-hay), 35% steam-flaked corn (SFC), 20% wet corn gluten feed (WCGF)] and finisher (65% SFC, 20% WCGF, 8% LQ-hay) diets were offered once daily at 0700 h. Live-yeast cells or placebo (soybean meal) were delivered with gel capsules (0.25 g, as is) twice daily directly into the rumen via ruminal cannula. Four, 35 d periods were used, in which feeding behavior assessment was conducted by trained personnel on d 31 (continuous 24 h, every 5 min) while no other major management was performed during the evaluation. The time spent eating, ruminating (standing/laying), resting (stating/laying), active, and drinking were recorded, while chewing was estimated by adding rumination and eating time. The number of meals and time spent on each meal were also assessed. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedures of SAS, with animal considered as the experimental unit. The statistical model used the fixed effects of diet type, liveyeast presence, and the diet × live-yeast interaction, while square, period, and animal(square) were used as random effects. No diet × live-yeast interactions (P = 0.17) or main effects of live-yeast (P = 0.23) were observed for the variables measured. Feeding behavior was affected by diet type, in which steers offered a grower diet had greater time spent ruminating (341 vs. 231 min/d; P < 0.01), eating (154 vs. 105 min/d; P < 0.01), chewing (494 vs. 336 min/d; P < 0.01), and meal length (13 vs. 10 min/meal; P < 0.01), while less time resting (838 vs. 973 min/d; P < 0.01) compared with those offered the finisher diet. The time spent drinking (15 min/d; P = 0.29) and the number of daily meals (13 meals/d; P = 0.66) were not affected by treatments, while steers offered the finisher diet tended (P = 0.12) to be more active than those offered the grower diet (116 vs. 95 min/d). As expected, grower diets were more prone than finisher diets to stimulate feeding behavior variables of beef steers. Moreover, when directly introduced inside the rumen via ruminal cannula, the live yeast used seemed to not affect the feeding behavior of beef steers consuming a steam-flaked corn-based grower or finisher diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of live-yeast and diet type (grower or finisher) offered to beef steers on fecal pH variables were evaluated. Ruminally-cannulated Anguscrossbred steers (n = 8; BW = 550 ± 20 kg) were used in a duplicated 4 × 4 Latin Square design, on a 2 × 2 factorial treatment arrangement, with factors described as follows: A) presence of live-yeast [Saccharomyces cerevisiae (CNCM I-1077), at 2 × 1010 CFU/g); and B) diet type. Diets (DM basis) contained 3% yellowgrease and min/vitamin supplement-adjusted. The grower [40% low-quality alfalfa-hay (LQ-hay), 35% steam-flaked corn (SFC), 20% wet corn gluten feed (WCGF)] and finisher (65% SFC, 20% WCGF, 8% LQ-hay)] diets were offered to ad libitum intake, once daily at 0700 h. Live-yeast treatment and control (soybean meal as carrier only) were pre-weighed (0.25 g, as is) within gel-capsules and kept at room temperature until introduced directly into the rumen (via ruminal cannula) twice daily (0700 and 1800 h). Four periods of 35 d (28 d of adaptation and 7 d of collection) were used. Fresh fecal samples (50 ± 1 g, as is) were collected via rectal finger-stimulation 4 times per day (every 6 h), during 6 consecutive days, while sampling time was adjusted by advancing 1 h daily so that all the 24 h period after feeding became represented by collections. Samples were suspended with deionized water (to complete 100 g, total) into a plastic container with cap and immediately measured using a pH electrode. The statistical model used animal as experimental unit, the fixed effects of diet, live-yeast, and diet × live-yeast. Square, period, and animal(square) were used as random effects, except by pH average (repeated measures), in which animal(treatment) was also included. For fecal pH average, no 3-way, treatment × time, or diet × time interactions were observed (P = 0.86), except by a treatment × diet interaction, in which animals offered liveyeast on a grower diet had greater (P = 0.04) fecal pH compared with those offered live-yeast on a finisher diet (6.63 vs. 6.55). Regardless of treatments, collection time was meaningful (P = 0.01), where the greatest fecal pH average (6.70) was reached at 14 h, while the least (5.52) was reached at 8, 15, and 22 h after feeding. The fecal pH average across all treatments was 6.58, and it was used to calculate area and time under such threshold. The area (147, min × pH-delta) and the time (730 min) under the curve (pH 6.58), maximum (6.98), minimum (6.22), and the pH magnitude of change (0.76) were not affected (P = 0.37) by treatments. Fecal pH was cyclic and seemed to be positively affected by dietary live-yeast inclusion when offered to beef steers consuming a grower diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of bacterial direct-fed microbial (DFM) mixtures on beef cattle feeding behavior were evaluated. Six ruminally cannulated crossbred Angus steers (BW = 520 ± 30 kg) were used in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin Square design. Steers were offered a steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet to ad libitum during three, 28 d periods (21-d adaptation and 7-d collection). Treatments assigned were: 1) Control (no DFM, lactose carrier only); 2) Treat-A [L. animalis, P. freudenreichii; B. subtilis; and B. licheniformis, at 1:1:1:3 ratio, respectively; totaling 6 × 109 CFU (50mg)/animaldaily minimum (Chr.Hansen]; and 3) Treat-B, the same DFM combination, but with doses at 1:1:3:1 ratio. Bacterial counts were approximately 30% greater than the minimum expected. The DFM diluted mixtures and carrier (Control) were pre-weighed and stored at -20°C until incorporated into the diet (2 g· animal-1·/day-1) 10 min prior to feeding. For mixing, approximately 1 kg (as is) of the diet being offered was removed from the individual recipient, DFM was mixed by hand, and the mixture was incorporated into the feed allocated for the day. The feeding behavior assessment consisted of a 24 h continuous visual observation (every 5 min) performed by trained personnel. Animals were assessed on d 26 of each period (no other management other than cleaning of the stall), while time spent eating, ruminating, resting, active, and drinking were taken. Time spent chewing was accounted for by adding time spent eating and ruminating. In addition, records allowed the count of the number of meals taken, as well as the time spent on each meal. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS, with animal considered as the experimental unit, the fixed effects of treatment, and random effect of square, period, and animal (square). F-test protected pre-planned orthogonal contrasts was used to compare Control vs. Treat-A and Control vs. Treat-B. Meal number (16/d) and length (8 min/meal) were not affected by treatments (P = 0.54). Main feeding behavior variables consisting of rumination (198 min/d), eating (117 min/d), chewing (315 min/d), drinking (22 min/d), resting (929 min/d), and active (174 min/d) were not affected (P = 0.24) by treatments. A tendency was observed (P = 0.08) where animals offered the Treat-B spent numerically less time ruminating per unit of digestible DM and OM intake compared with Control (13.5 vs. 15.5, and 13.7 vs 15.6 min/kg, respectively). Other behaviors measured in min/kg of DM, NDF, and ADF intake were not affected (P = 0.17) by treatments [rumination (11.5, 60.2, and 181), eating (6.5, 34.4, and 104), chewing (18, 94.6, and 285), and drinking (1.2, 6.6, and 19.8) min/kg, respectively]. The bacterial DFM mixtures offered appear not to directly affect the feeding behavior of beef cattle consuming a steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nutritive quality of perennial warm-season grasses during summer may limit the DMI of growing calves due to low protein and increased NDF content. Cottonseed meal (CSM) supplementation may improve forage utilization by increasing rumen degradable protein, but research in calves is limited. It was hypothesized that supplementation of CSM to heifers grazing mature forage would have improved performance due to greater forage DMI and fiber digestibility. Objectives were to compare the effects of CSM supplementation on calf gain performance, estimated forage intake, and in vitro true digestibility (IVTD) and neutral detergent digestibility (IVNDFD) of low-quality, warm-season forage. Angus heifers (n = 18) weighing 232.7 ± 12.6 kg were blocked by BW (light, medium, and heavy) and allocated to 6 paddocks (1.64 ha) of W.W. B-Dahl Bluestem (Bothriochloa bladhii) for 67 d. Heifers were supplemented daily with a mineral mix and either no cottonseed meal (CON) or 454 g/animal of CSM (CSM1) in a RCBD with a 2×3 factorial arrangement of treatments and BW blocks, respectively. Initial and final shrunk BW was measured to calculate total gain, ADG, and percent of BW gained. Forage samples were collected weekly and composited into 3 periods for chemical analysis and in vitro incubations. Forage DMI was estimated using a double sampling technique for each paddock within period. Forage IVTD and IVNDFD were analyzed using batch fermentation with and without CSM in a CRD (2 treatments by 3 periods). Mean forage CP during periods 1 and 2 were 5.75% and increased to 10.3% in period 3 (P < 0.01). Forage NDF content increased over time (64.1 vs. 69.3%; P < 0.01) and estimated forage DMI of heifers tended (P = 0.07) to decrease from 2.9 to 2.1% of BW. Treatment did not affect estimated forage DMI (P = 0.40). Heifers receiving CSM1 gained 28.3% more BW than heifers receiving CON (47.27 vs. 36.82 kg, respectively; P = 0.02). Percent of BW gained was greater for heifers receiving CSM1 than CON (16.9 vs. 13.8% of initial BW, respectively, P = 0.029). There were no treatment by period interactions on IVTD or IVNDFD. The IVTD of forage from period 1 was greater than periods 2 and 3 (49.9 vs. 47.1 and 46.6%, respectively; P = 0.005). The IVTD of forage incubated with CSM tended (P = 0.06) to be greater than forage without CSM (52.1% vs. 47.8%, respectively). The IVNDFD was not affected by period but tended to be greater with CSM inclusion (P = 0.09) relative to CON (24.83% vs. 18.95%, respectively). In conclusion, 454 g/d of CSM supplemented to heifers grazing latesummer W. W. B-Dahl Bluestem forage likely provided sufficient protein to alter ruminal fiber digestibility, without affecting forage intake, and had measurable effects on gain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to analyze the social trust in a group of dairy farmers in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. The related Association of Dairy Producers (ADP) is like most small rural organizations present in Brazil that emerged to meet the public policies. Current assessment had three stages: a) identifying producers; b) applying the surveys; and c) data analyses. The producer association was unable to provide some basic information about its members (such as phone number), which signals a lack of trust. To identify the ADP members, it was necessary to visit the milking parlor expansion tanks to find such contact. Another situation reinforced the first impression regarding the lack of social trust: an ADP member did not authorize the access to to the research conduct the surveys for the members that used the expansion tank installed on his land. The surveys were then conducted at four out of five locations where expansion tanks were installed. Among the ADP members surveyed, 68.75% answered the survey. Approximately 82% of respondents indicated caution when dealing people in general (inside or outside the ADP). Although there was an indication of lack of social trust, 54.4% of producers trusted entirely the ADP; 22.7% partially trusted; 13.6% were indifferent; 4.5% had low trust, and 4.5% did not trust. When voluntary participation in decision in the association activities was questioned, 68.2% of the surveyed members answered "actively participate", 31.8% "participate without actions," and none of the surveyed members admitted no participation. Approximately 82% of the surveyed members had a positive perception of the association, while 18% believed it was not properly managed and inferred no longer assist with it in the future. A greater participation in the association activities may have not being observed due to the fact that current association was transitioning into a cooperative business model at the time of current data collection. For 18.25% of the members, the two main causes of the distrust in the recently created agricultural cooperative was related to: a) the requirement to obligatory become a member; and b) the delay in the construction completion of the dairy processing plant. The results suggest that producers show signs of general social distrust, indicated by concerns regarding the advantages, disadvantages, or even the risks associated with becoming members of the agricultural cooperative. Nonetheless, the vast majority of producer members trusted in the association. Further assessment is warranted to investigate if the source of general social mistrust observed erupted from internal (local community) or external (city, state, and federal public policies) venues of the society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a nutritional packet containing a direct-fed microbial combined with vitamins/electrolytes offered at the beginning and end of the finishing phase to beef steers in a calf-fed system on feeding behavior were evaluated. Angus crossbred steer-calves (n = 18; BW = 234 ± 4 kg) were assigned to a randomized complete block design (block = body weight; steer = experimental unit) and stratified into two treatments: a) control (no packet, finely-ground corn carrier only); and b) 30 g of DM/animal-daily of a nutritional packet [live-yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae; 8.7 Log CFU/g), vitamin C (5.4 g/kg of ascorbic acid), vitamin B1 (13.33 g/kg of thiamine hydrochloride), and electrolytes of NaCl (80 g/kg) and KCl (80 g/kg)]. Animals were individually offered [electronic feed-bunks (Smart-Feed/C-Lock Inc.)] a steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet ad libitum once daily for 233 d, while treatments were offered during the first (phase-1) and last 60 d (phase-2) on feed only. Feeding behavior activities were assessed in min/d by using CowManagerTM ear tag sensors. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. There was no treatment × phase interactions (P ≥ 0.15), except that steers receiving the nutritional packet tended (P = 0.10) to spend more time (6 vs. 9 min/kg) eating digestible DM during phase-2 only. Regardless of phase, steers consuming the nutritional packet spent more time (P = 0.04) eating per kg of hemicellulose. Regardless of treatment, a decreased rumination (P ≤ 0.03) and chewing (P ≤ 0.01) activity-variables were observed for the phase-2 compared to phase-1. Steers receiving the nutritional packet exhibited superior time spent on eating activities, especially during the final 60 d before slaughter, and fiber seems to be the major driver inducing such effect. Towards the end of the finishing phase, cattle reduced rumination and chewing compared to the arrival phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of dietary inclusion of live bacteria on feedlot beef cattle apparent total tract nutrient digestibility were evaluated. Crossbred-Angus yearling steers (n = 192; initial BW = 409 kg ± 8 kg) were blocked by body weight (BW) and randomly assigned into 48 pens (4 steers/pen; 16 pens/treatment) following a randomized complete block design. A steam-flaked corn-based fishing diet was offered ad libitum once daily containing the following treatments: 1) Control, in which no direct fed microbial (DFM) was offered (lactose as carrier only); 2 and 3) Probiotic mixtures at distinct concentrations [Mixture A and B, at 2g/animal-daily (lactose used as carrier)]. Orts DM were quantified (if any) daily and subtracted from total dietary DM offered to calculate DM intake. Fecal samples were collected twice daily (0700 and 1700 h) for 5 consecutive days (d 68 to 72) from at least 3 steers per pen, while feed samples were collected daily. Samples were composited within period, dehydrated (55°C), and ground (1mm) for further analyses. Total fecal output was estimated with a dietary internal marker (288-h indigestible NDF) and used to calculate nutrient digestibility. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS and pen was considered the experimental unit. Intakes of DM, OM, NDF, and ADF during the digestibility assessment were not affected (P = 0.13) by treatments. Steers offered DFM mixture-A tended to increase digestibility of DM (P = 0.07; 79.3 vs. 77.1%), NDF (P = 0.10; 56.9 vs. 51.6%), and hemicellulose (P = 0.08; 59.4 vs. 53.9%) compared with control, while digestibility of ADF was not affected (P = 0.24) by treatment. The DFM mixture-A seemed to positively affect apparent digestibility of nutrients in steers consuming a steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet, in which improvements in the fiber fraction digestion seemed to be a meaningful contributor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a nutritional packet containing a direct-fed microbial combined with vitamins/electrolytes offered to beef steers in a calf-fed system on apparent total tract nutrient digestibility were evaluated. Angus crossbred steer-calves (n = 60; BW = 234 ± 4 kg) were assigned to a randomized complete block design (block = body weight; steer = experimental unit) and stratified into 2 treatments: a) control (no packet, finely-ground corn carrier only); and b) 30 g of DM/animal-daily of a nutritional packet [liveyeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae; 8.7 Log CFU/g), Vitamin C (5.4 g/kg of Ascorbic acid), Vitamin B1 (13.33 g/kg of Thiamine hydrochloride), and electrolytes of NaCl (80 g/kg) and KCl (80 g/kg)]. Animals were individually offered [electronic feed-bunks (Smart-Feed/C-Lock Inc.)] a steamflaked corn-based finishing diet ad libitum, once daily for 233 d. Treatments were offered during the first (phase-1) and last (phase-2) 60 d on feed. At the conclusion of each phase, feed samples were collected once daily (1400 h), while fecal samples twice daily (0700 and 1700 h) from each steer during 4 consecutive days. Fecal and feed sample composites were dehydrated (55oC), ground (1 mm), and analyzed to assess DM, OM, NDF, ADF, and hemicellulose. The 288-h indigestible NDF was used as dietary internal marker to estimate fecal output and used to calculate nutrient digestibility. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. Intake of DM, OM, and fiber components during both digestibility trials were not affected (P = 0.56) by treatments. Steers offered the nutritional packet had increased (P < 0.01) apparent total tract digestibility of DM, OM, NDF, ADF, and hemicellulose by at least 2.4, 2.4, 8.3, 10, and 7.5%, respectively, in both digestibility phases. Superior nutrient digestibility without affecting nutrient intake may justify a potential enhanced carcass energy deposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of dietary inclusion of live bacteria mixtures on feedlot beef cattle feeding behavior were evaluated. Crossbred-Angus yearling steers (n = 192; initial BW = 409 kg ± 8 kg) were blocked by body weight (BW) and randomly assigned into 48 pens (4 steers/pen; 16 pens/treatment) following a randomized complete block design. A steam-flaked corn-based fishing diet was offered ad libitum once daily containing the following treatments: 1) Control, in which no direct fed microbial (DFM) was offered (lactose as carrier only); 2 and 3) Probiotic mixtures at distinct concentrations [Mixture A and B, at 2g/animal-daily (lactose used as carrier)]. Orts DM were quantified daily and subtracted from total dietary DM offered to calculate DM intake. Feeding behavior activities (continuous 24 h) were visually assessed (d 106 and 113) by trained personnel, where time spent on each activity was recorded every 5 min. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedures of SAS and pen was considered the experimental unit. No treatment × period interactions (P ≥ 0.21) were observed. Main feeding behavior variables consisting of time spent ruminating, chewing, eating, and drinking in minutes per day were not affected (P ≥ 0.17) by treatments, while steers in general ruminated, ate, chewed, and were more active (P ≤ 0.01) during the second behavioral assessment, regardless of treatments. Rates of intake in minutes per kg of DM, OM, fiber and digestible DM, OM, and fiber were not affected (P ≥ 0.12) by treatments; however more time spent (P < 0.01) ruminating, eating, and chewing in minutes per kg were observed on d113 compared to d106 regardless of treatments. Drinking time (min/d) and drinking rates (min/kg) were not affected (P ≥ 0.81) by period. The DFM mixtures did not negatively affect feeding behavior of yearling steers consuming steam-flaked corn-based finishing diets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a nutritional packet containing a direct-fed microbial combined with vitamins/electrolytes offered to beef steers in a calf-fed system on ruminal papillae morphology and volatile fatty acid (VFA) profile were evaluated. Angus crossbred steercalves (n = 60; BW = 234 ± 4 kg) were assigned to a randomized complete block design (block = body weight; steer = experimental unit) and stratified into two treatments: a) control (no packet, finely-ground corn carrier only); and b) 30 g of DM/animal-daily of a nutritional packet [live-yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae; 8.7 Log CFU/g), Vitamin C (5.4 g/kg of Ascorbic acid), Vitamin B1 (13.33 g/kg of Thiamine hydrochloride), and electrolytes of NaCl (80 g/kg) and KCl (80 g/kg)]. Animals were individually offered [electronic feed-bunks (Smart-Feed/C-Lock Inc.)] a steamflaked corn-based finishing diet ad libitum once daily for 233 d, while treatments were offered during the first and last 60 days on feed only. Upon harvest (federally inspected facility), individual samples of ruminal cranial sac epithelium and rumen content (quickly frozen) were collected. Preserved (70% alcohol at 5oC) ruminal tissue fragments were trimmed (1 cm2), in which papillae were counted, followed by a random removal of 12 individual papillae for further area measurement using electronic scanning (ImageJ). Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. Steers offered to nutritional packet had a 30% increased (P = 0.02) average papillae area, which induced a tendency (P = 0.14) to improve ruminal absorptive surface area (89 vs. 93%), while not affecting ruminal papillae number (P = 0.39). Molar proportions of acetate, butyrate, and propionate were not affected (P ≥ 0.51) by treatments, while total VFA (mM) tended (P = 0.09) to increase by 8% for animals consuming the nutritional packet. The nutritional packet seemed to improve ruminal fermentation products while positively affecting ruminal papillae morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of dietary inclusion of live bacteria on feedlot beef cattle growth performance and carcass characteristics were evaluated. Crossbred-Angus yearling steers (n = 192; initial BW = 409 kg ± 8 kg) were blocked by body weight (BW) and randomly assigned into 48 pens (4 steers/pen; 16 pens/treatment) following a randomized complete block design. A steam-flaked corn-based fishing diet was offered ad libitum once daily containing the following treatments: 1) Control, in which no direct fed microbial (DFM) was offered (lactose as carrier only); 2 and 3) Probiotic mixtures at distinct concentrations [Mixture A and B, at 2g/animal-daily (lactose used as carrier)]. Orts DM were quantified daily and subtracted from total dietary DM offered to calculate DM intake. Two-day consecutive unshrunk BW were recorded before feeding on d 0, 30, 60, 90, 121, and 153 (prior to shipment to a federally inspected slaughter facility). Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS and pen was considered the experimental unit, in which F-test protected pre-planned contrasts comparing control versus DFM mixture-A and control versus DFM mixture-B were used. Steers offered mixture-A increased carcass-adjusted ADG (P = 0.03) by 6.7%, gain efficiency (P < 0.01) by 6%, tended to increase carcass-adjusted final BW (P = 0.07) by 15kg and hot carcass weight (P = 0.07) by 10kg. The overall (d 0 to end) DM intake (P = 0.36) was not affected by treatment; however, a subtle (1.2%) decrease (P < 0.01) during the initial 30 days for steers offered DFM mixture-B was observed. Carcass variables (dressing percentage, 12th rib fat, longissimus muscle area, marbling, yield grade, and liver scores) were not affected (P = 0.13) by treatments. Growth performance was improved with DFM mixture-A which seemed to positively affect carcass weight without inducing deleterious effects on other carcass characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct fed microbials (DFM) dietary mixture effects on beef cattle ruminal variables, intake, and apparent total tract digestibility were evaluated. Six ruminally cannulated beef steers (BW = 520 ± 30 kg) were used in a duplicated 3 × 3 Latin square design and offered a steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet ad libitum for three 28-d periods (21-d adaptation and 7-d collection). Treatments assigned were: 1) Control (no DFM mixture; lactose only); 2 and 3) DFM mixtures at distinct concentrations [Mixture A and B, at 2 g/animal-daily (lactose used as carrier)]. Ruminal pH and temperature were measured every 6 min (wireless probes). Ruminal samples were collected at 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 23 h post-feeding on d28. Feed and fecal samples (collected once and twice daily, respectively) were composited by period and analyzed. Fecal output was estimated with a dietary internal marker (288-h indigestible-NDF). Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. No treatment × time interactions (P = 0.20) were observed. Steers offered mixture-A experienced 300 min/d less (P = 0.04) time under the ruminal pH 5.6, tended (P = 0.13) for a lesser area under the curve of ruminal pH 5.6, while showing a greater (P = 0.04) ruminal pH average (5.67 vs. 5.50), and tended (P = 0.06) for a lesser ruminal temperature (39.2 vs. 39.4°C) compared to control. The ruminal concentration of NH3-N was greater (P = 0.02) for mixture-A compared with control (10.78 vs. 4.35 mg/dL), while animals offered mixture-B tended (P = 0.07) to be greater (9.11 mg/dL) than control. Steers offered DFM mixture-A increased (P = 0.04) ADF digestibility compared with control (39.8 vs. 54.0%), while not affecting DM intake (P = 0.61). The DFM mixture-A induced a safer ruminal pH environment and encouraging fiber degradation and NH3-N release, while not affecting animal intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a nutritional packet containing a direct-fed microbial combined with vitamins/electrolytes offered to beef steers in a calf-fed system on growth performance and carcass characteristics were evaluated. Angus crossbred steer-calves (n = 60; BW = 234 ± 4 kg) were assigned to a randomized complete block design (block = body weight; steer = experimental unit) and stratified into two treatments: a) control (no packet, finely-ground corn carrier only); and b) 30 g of DM/animal-daily of a nutritional packet [live-yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae; 8.7 Log CFU/g), Vitamin C (5.4 g/kg of Ascorbic acid), Vitamin B1 (13.33 g/kg of Thiamine hydrochloride), and electrolytes of sodium chloride (80 g/kg) and potassium chloride (80 g/kg)]. Animals were individually offered [electronic feed-bunks (Smart-Feed/C-Lock Inc.)] a steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet ad libitum, once daily for 233 d. Treatments were offered during the first (phase-1) and last (phase-2) 60 d on feed. Body weight measurements were taken every 30 d before feeding. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. Steers offered the nutritional packet had 14% less (P < 0.01) intake and 18% greater gain efficiency during the initial 30-d on feed, while such advantage did not (P = 0.26) persist when accounting for the initial 60 d for either variable. Overall intake (d0 to d233) was 6% greater (P = 0.02), while carcass-adjusted ADG (1.61 vs. 1.56), and carcass-adjusted gain efficiency (0.198 vs. 0.204) were unaffected (P = 0.44) compared with control, respectively. Dressing percent of steers offered the packet was 1 percentage-unit greater (P = 0.02), while other carcass variables were unaffected (P = 0.33). Calffed steers seem to benefit from such nutritional packet during the initial 30 d after feedlot arrival, while both superior intake and dressing percentage appears to last until cattle harvest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a nutritional packet offered to beef yearling-steers during the feedlot-finishing phase on feeding behavior were evaluated. Crossbred-Angus steers (n = 30; initial BW = 542 ± 8 kg) were assigned to pens (15 steers/pen; animal = experimental unit) in a randomized complete block design. Steers were offered a steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet ad libitum, and treatments as follows: 1) control and 2) 30 g/steer-daily (DM-basis) of a nutritional packet (live yeast [Saccharomyces cerevisiae; 8.7 Log CFU/g], vitamin C [5.4 g/kg], vitamin B1 [13.33 g/kg], NaCl [80 g/kg], and KCl [80 g/kg]). Ground corn was used as a carrier and included at 1% of diet DM. Orts were subtracted from the dietary DM offered to calculate DM intake. Feeding behavior (meal frequency, meal size, bunk visit duration, and meal criterion) were continuously recorded using the Smartfeed system (individual animals). Three periods during the last 60 days before cattle harvest were assessed: 1) d7-11; 2) d28 -32; and 3) d49-53. Periods were used to compute meal criteria for each animal using the Meal Criterion Calculation (v. 1.9) software. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. No treatment × period interactions were observed (P ≥ 0.32) for meal frequency, duration (min/meal), and intake (kg/meal). Steers offered the nutritional packet had greater overall meal duration during periods 1 and 3 (75 and 77 min/d; P < 0.01), but did not differ (68 min/d; P = 0.09) for period 2 (Control AVR = 55 min/d). Steers offered the nutritional packet had greater (P ≤ 0.01) meal frequency (20 vs. 16 meals/d), while individual meal duration (3.85 min/meal) and meal intake (0.46 kg/meal) were not affected by treatments (P > 0.86). Improved meal frequency and overall time spent eating, without affecting intake, may induce a more desirable daily distribution of nutrients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of the dietary inclusion of live bacteria mixtures on feedlot beef cattle ruminal papillae morphology were evaluated. Crossbred-Angus yearling steers (n = 192; initial BW = 409 kg ± 8 kg) were blocked by body weight (BW) and randomly assigned into 48 pens (4 steers/pen; 16 pens/treatment) following a randomized complete block design. A steam-flaked corn-based fishing diet was offered ad libitum once daily during 153 d containing the following treatments: 1) Control, in which no direct-fed microbial (DFM) was offered (lactose as carrier only); 2 and 3) Probiotic mixtures at distinct concentrations [Mixture A and B, at 2g/animal-daily (lactose used as carrier)]. Upon harvest at a federally inspected slaughter facility, epithelium samples were collected from the cranial sac of the rumen, immersed in a 70% alcohol, and preserved under refrigeration (5°C). Ruminal tissue fragments were trimmed (1cm2), in which papillae were completely counted within the fragment, followed by the removal of 12 random individual papillae for further area measurement using electronic scanning (ImageJ). Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS and pen was considered the experimental unit with the fixed effect of treatment and the random effect of block. Regardless of treatments, average papillae area in cm2 (P = 0.39; control: 0.38, DFM mixture-A: 0.40, DFM mixture-B: 0.37), papillae number within fragment (P = 0.70; control: 47, DFM mixture-A: 52, DFM mixture-B: 49), absorptive surface area in cm2/fragment cm2 (P = 0.87; control: 37, DFM mixture-A: 39, DFM mixture-B: 38), and ruminal absorptive surface area (P = 0.74; control: 97%, DFM mixture-A: 97%, DFM mixture-B: 97%) were not affected compared with control. The addition of DFM mixtures did not seem to affect ruminal papillae physical aspect, although the long-term effects of dietary inclusion of live bacteria on ruminal morphology needs to be further evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a nutritional packet fed to beef steers during the feedlot finishing phase (final 64 d) on feeding behavior were evaluated. Crossbred-Angus steers (n = 120; initial BW = 544 ± 52 kg) were assigned to 30 pens (4 steers/pen; 15 pens/treatment; pen = experimental unit) in a randomized complete block design. Steers were fed, ad libitum, a steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet and treatments were applied as follows: 1) control and 2) 30 g/steer-daily (DM-basis) of a nutritional packet (containing live yeast [Saccharomyces cerevisiae; 8.7 Log CFU/g], vitamin C [5.4 g/kg], vitamin B1 [13.33 g/kg], NaCl [80 g/kg], and KCl [80 g/kg]). The nutritional packet used ground corn as a carrier and was included at 1% of diet DM. Orts were subtracted from the total dietary DM offered to calculate DM intake. Feeding behavior activities were visually assessed by trained personnel twice (d 27 and d 63) for 24 h, when time spent on each activity was recorded every 5 min. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. Treatment × period interactions (P ≤ 0.03) were observed for eating time (min/d) and eating rates (min/kg of consumed DM, OM, fiber, and digestible DM, OM, and fiber), in which steers fed the nutritional packet spent less time in such activities on d 27 and more time during the assessment on d 63, compared with control. Regardless of period, steers fed the nutritional packet tended (P = 0.07) to spend less time chewing per kg of digestible ADF. Rumination (P ≥ 0.28), drinking (P ≥ 0.40), active (P ≥ 0.92), and resting (P ≥ 0.53) times were not affected by treatment. The nutritional packet affected eating behavior more intensively during the first 27 d of treatment, and digestible ADF seems to be the main feed-fraction inducing such effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a nutritional packet fed to beef steers during the final 64 d of the feedlot finishing phase on growth performance and carcass characteristics were evaluated. Crossbred-Angus steers (n = 120; initial BW = 544 ± 52 kg) were assigned to 30 pens (4 steers/pen; 15 pens/treatment) in a randomized complete block design where pen represented the experimental unit. A steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet was fed ad libitum, and treatments were applied as follows: 1) control and 2) 30 g/steer-daily (DM-basis) of the nutritional packet (containing live yeast [8.7 Log CFU of Saccharomyces cerevisiae], vitamin C [5.4 g/kg of Ascorbic acid], vitamin B1 [13.33 g/kg of Thiamine hydrochloride], sodium chloride [80 g/kg] and potassium chloride [80 g/kg]). The nutritional packet used ground corn as a carrier and was included at 1 % of diet DM. Orts were quantified daily (if any) and subtracted from the total dietary DM offered to calculate DM intake. Unshrunk BW were collected on d 0, 21, 42 and 64 before daily feeding at 0630 h. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. Average daily gain (P = 0.89), dry matter intake (P = 0.57) and, gain:feed (P = 0.66) were not affected by the inclusion of the nutritional packet. The 12th rib fat deposition was increased (P ≤ 0.02) for cattle fed the nutritional packet compared with control (15.70 vs. 13.36 mm, respectively). Consequently, calculated yield grade was also increased (P ≤ 0.03) for cattle consuming the nutritional packet (3.32 vs. 3.02). An improved carcass fatdeposition without any deleterious effects on growth performance potentially warrant less days on feed when cattle receive such nutritional packet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a nutritional packet fed to beef steers during the final 64 d of the feedlot finishing phase on apparent total tract nutrient digestibility were evaluated. Angus-crossbred steers (n =120; initial BW = 544 ± 52 kg) were assigned to 30 pens (4 steers/pen; 15 pens/treatment; pen = experimental unit) in a randomized complete block design. A steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet was fed ad libitum and treatments applied as follows: 1) control and 2) 30 g/steerdaily (DM-basis) of the nutritional packet [containing live yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae; 8.7 Log CFU/g), vitamin C (5.4 g/kg), vitamin B1 (13.33 g/kg), NaCl (80 g/kg) and KCl (80 g/kg)]. The nutritional packet used ground corn as a carrier and was included at 1% of diet DM. Orts were quantified daily (if any) and subtracted from the total dietary DM offered to calculate DM intake. Fecal samples were collected twice daily (0700 and 1700 h) for 5 consecutive days (d 47 to 51) from at least 3 steers within pen. Feed samples were collected daily at time of feeding (0630 h). Fecal and feed samples were composited to represent the collection period, dried (55oC), ground (1 mm), and analyzed to assess DM, OM, NDF, ADF, and hemicellulose. In situ (288 h) iNDF was used as an internal marker to measure apparent total tract nutrient digestibility. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. Intake of DM, OM, and fiber components during the digestibility period was not affected (P ≥ 0.44) by treatment. Steers fed the nutritional packet had increased apparent total tract digestibility of OM (P = 0.02), DM (P = 0.01), NDF (P = 0.02), ADF (P = 0.01), and hemicellulose (P = 0.08; tendency). Improved nutrient digestibility without affecting nutrient intake may warrant an enhanced energy deposition in the carcass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of live yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and ruminal environment on in vitro true digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, and fiber components were evaluated. Ruminally-cannulated beef steers (n = 4; BW = 520 ± 30 kg) were used in a cross-over design to serve as donors of ruminal content. In vitro substrates (6 grower and 6 finisher diets) and individual ingredients (steam-flaked corn, wet corn gluten feed, and old-world bluestem hay) were dehydrated (55o C), ground (1 mm), and incubated using a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments: a) the presence or not of yeast (8×109 CFU/animal-daily adjusted to a 70 L ruminal content volume), and b) two ruminal inoculums collected from donors fed a grower (50:50) or a finisher (92:08) diet (concentrate:forage). Four incubation batches (experimental unit) were performed, in which the initial two batches were performed followed by another two after animals switched diets and were adapted again during 21d. A Daisy in vitro incubation system was used, and samples incubated for 48h (39°C). The GLIMMIX procedure of SAS was used for the statistical analysis. No 3-way interactions (P ≥ 0.71) or 2-way interactions with substrate were observed (P ≥ 0.25). The in vitro true digestibility of DM, OM, NDF, and hemicellulose increased when yeast was added to the incubator containing a 50:50 ruminal content (Rumen × Yeast; P ≤ 0.02). The ADF digestibility increased (P = 0.02) with yeast addition regardless of ruminal content type (50:50 or 92:08). As expected, finisher substrate diets were more (P < 0.01) digestible than grower diets. The combination of live yeast and a specific ruminal environment seemed to be more important than substrate type, in which live yeast improved in vitro digestion within a 50:50 ruminal inoculum more evidently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A replicated 3 × 3 Latin square was used to determine the effects of bismuth subsalicylate on ruminal fermentation parameters of beef cattle consuming a feedlot diet. Six ruminally-cannulated Angus-crossbred steers (n = 3; 573 ± 105 kg BW) and heifers (n = 3; 553 ± 77 kg BW) were assigned 1 of 3 treatments: 1) low sulfur (S = 0.27% diet DM; LSUL); 2) high sulfur (S = 0.38% diet DM; HSUL); and 3) HSUL + 0.33% bismuth subsalicylate in diet DM; (BSS). Cattle were adapted to treatments for 14 d followed by 7 d of collections. Ruminal gas cap samples were collected at 0, 4, 8, and 12 h post-feeding on d 14, and ruminal fluid samples were collected on d 15 every 3 h post-feeding for 24 h. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. Treatment tended (P = 0.099) to affect H2S concentration where BSS and LSUL were 50 and 61% lesser when compared to HSUL, respectively. A tendency (P = 0.061) was also observed for concentration of NH3-N where HSUL and BSS were lesser than CTRL. There was also a tendency for a treatment effect (P = 0.082) where HSUL had a lower pH than LSUL with BSS being intermediate. Furthermore, treatment tended (P = 0.0712) to affect the concentration of acetate where HSUL was lesser than BSS. No effect of treatment (P ≥ 0.124) was observed on total VFA concentration nor concentrations of butyrate, propionate, or valerate (P ≥ 0.138). Treatment tended (P = 0.084) to affect branched chain VFA concentration where BSS decreased concentrations compared to LSUL. Molar proportions of the major VFA were not impacted by treatment (P ≥ 0.100). In conclusion, BSS appears to decrease H2S production in the rumen without having negative effects on the fermentation profile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A randomized complete block design was used to evaluate the effects of bismuth subsalicylate (BSS) on in vitro ruminal fermentation with differing concentrations of sulfate. In vitro fermentation consisted of 50 mL of a 4:1 buffer:ruminal fluid inoculum and 0.7 g (pre-dehydrated) of substrate [WW-B Dahl bluestem hay (Bothriochloa bladhii)] incubated for 48 h (39oC). Treatments were arranged as a 3 × 4 factorial with concentration of sulfate (0.2, 2.9, or 5.6 g sulfate/L buffer) and BSS (0.0, 0.165, 0.330, or 0.495% substrate DM) as the main factors. In vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD), and CH4, H2S, and total gas production (TGP) were measured. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS with the fixed effects of BSS, sulfate, and their interaction. Incubation day (block) was considered a random effect. The average of 2 bottles within day was considered experimental unit. A BSS × sulfate interaction was observed for TGP (P = 0.040) and H2S production (P < 0.001), where BSS had a larger negative impact on TGP and production of H2S with greater concentrations of sulfate. A linear effect (P < 0.001) of sulfate was observed for CH4 production per gram of incubated OM, where CH4 was decreased as sulfate concentration increased. A quadratic effect of sulfate was observed for IVOMD (P = 0.010) and pH (P = 0.009). Production of H2S linearly decreased (P = 0.001) as BSS concentration increased. The addition of BSS to in vitro incubations did not affect (P > 0.10) any other variables measured. Bismuth subsalicylate does not appear to have negative effects on in vitro fermentation parameters while decreasing H2S production; however, elevated concentrations of sulfate in the buffer appears to have negative impacts on fermentation. Further in vivo research is warranted to support BSS supplementation to cattle with high dietary sulfate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a nutritional packet were evaluated on CH4 emissions and apparent total tract nutrient digestibility of feedlot beef steers. Thirty Angus-crossbred steers (BW = 542 ± 8.4 kg) were used in a randomized complete block design and allocated into pens equipped with SmartFeed (C-Lock; 15 steers/treatment). Steers were consuming a steam-flaked corn-based diet (88% concentrate DM basis) ad libitum for the last 65 d on feed, and received the following treatments: 1) control and 2) a nutritional packet [0.29% DM basis; live yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae; 8.7 Log CFU/g); Vitamin C (5.4 g/kg); Vitamin B1 (13.33 g/kg); NaCl (80 g/kg); KCl (80 g/kg)]. Methane emissions and apparent total tract nutrient digestibility were measured during 3 periods with 5-d of collections each. Gas emissions from steers were measured utilizing the SF6 tracer technique. Feed and fecal samples were collected once and twice (0700 h and 1600 h) daily, respectively, to determine digestibility of nutrients using iNDF as an internal marker. Steer was considered the experimental unit. Data were analyzed as repeated measures using the MIXED procedure of SAS with the fixed effects of treatment, period, and their interaction, and the random effect of block. No treatment × period interactions (P ≥ 0.125) were observed for DMI and any of the CH4 production variables (g/day, g/kg BW0.75, g/nutrient intake, and g/nutrient digested). Moreover, treatments did not affect digestibility of DM, OM, or ADF (P ≥ 0.300); however, digestibility of NDF was increased for treated cattle (P = 0.013), which resulted in a tendency (P = 0.098) to decrease CH4 production in g per kg NDF intake and decreased (P = 0.020) grams CH4 per kg NDF digested. The nutritional packet may be altering ruminal fermentation on intensively managed steers and improving fiber digestibility, which can have benefits on CH4 emission intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 30-d experiment was conducted to evaluate daily and cumulative gas fluxes of N2O, CH4, and CO2 produced by manure from Angus-crossbred steers grazing mature mixed-winter forage pastures [wheat, triticale, and rye (Triticum aestivum, Triticosecale rimpaui, and Secale cereal, respectively) and receiving N supplementation from two different sources. Steers received the following treatments: 1) mature mixed-winter pasture + ground corn (NCTRL), 2) NCTRL + 328 mg/kg of BW encapsulated calcium-ammonium nitrate (NIT) and 3) NCTRL + 124 mg/kg of BW urea (CTRL). All ground corn was supplemented at 0.3% BW. Treatments NIT and CTRL were isonitrogenous. Feces were collected and composited (1 kg as-is) within treatment, within block (3 blocks; 4 steers/treatment/block; 3 fecal composites/treatment). Gas samples were collected from static chambers previously installed in an area excluded from grazing. After 3 d, composites were deposited on the soil surface inside the chamber. Four subsamples were taken per deployment time per chamber, separated by 10-min intervals (t0, t10, t20 and t30) and injected into an evacuated 125-mL serum vial. Gas samples were collected every other day between 0900 and 1100 h and analyzed using a gas chromatograph. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design, with chamber as the experimental unit, using the MIXED procedure of SAS. No treatment × day interaction (P ≥ 0.145), nor treatment (P ≥ 0.622) effect were observed on daily-flux data for N2O, CH4, and CO2; however, a day effect was observed (P ≤ 0.001) where all gases peaked on d 2 post-manure application on the soil. Cumulative emissions were not different among treatments for N2O, CH4, and CO2 (P ≥ 0.663). Although it was expected for encapsulated calciumammonium nitrate to increase N2O emissions, such effect was not observed. Therefore, it appears that encapsulated calcium-ammonium nitrate does not affect manure greenhouse gas emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]