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Background: Deep neck infections (DNIs) are often clinically challenging, and may be life-threatening., Objective: The present retrospective study aimed to identify panels of clinical, laboratory, radiological, and microbiological parameters that could identify patients with DNIs at higher risk of complications or long-term hospitalization., Materials and Methods: The investigation concerned 301 consecutive patients with DNIs treated at our institution between 2000 and 2014., Results: The discriminatory power of a combination of two variables (unknown origin of the infection and the need for surgical treatment) in terms of deep neck infection complications occurrence featured an AUC (ROC) of 0.6701. The power of a panel of four variables (age, leukocyte count, need for surgical treatment, days elapsing from hospitalization to surgical procedure) to identify DNIs necessitating long-term hospitalization featured an AUC (ROC) of 0.7929., Conclusion: Using the scale proposed by Hosmer and Lemeshow, the four-variable panel showed an amply acceptable, nearly excellent discriminatory power for long-term hospitalization., Significance: Although this panel achieved promising results for prognostic purposes, other parameters potentially capable of predicting the outcome of DNIs and orienting treatment decisions need to be investigated.

Introduction: Necrotizing myositis (NM) is an extremely rare necrotizing soft tissue infection involving muscle. Unlike similar infections (eg, necrotizing fasciitis, clostridial myonecrosis) that can be more readily diagnosed, NM can have a benign presentation then rapidly progress into a life-threatening condition with a mortality rate of 100% without surgical intervention., Case Report: A 74-year-old man with a history of prostate cancer with radiation therapy, seed implants, and 2 transurethral resection procedures presented to the emergency department after a fall. He was initially diagnosed and treated for urosepsis. Sixteen hours after presentation, he complained of pain and swelling of his right groin. Computed tomography of the abdomen and pelvis showed gas findings suspicious for necrotizing infection of the bilateral thighs. Surgical exploration revealed NM. Separate cultures from the left thigh and bladder grew Streptococcus intermedius, Clostridium clostridioforme, and Peptostreptococcus, suggesting a possible common source of infection from the prostate gland or the osteomyelitic pubic symphysis, which subsequently spread to the bilateral thighs., Conclusions: To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of S intermedius and C clostridioforme causing NM. A high index of suspicion is required for extremely rare conditions like NM, because early diagnosis and surgical intervention significantly reduce mortality.

Background: Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) can potentially help distinguish cellulitis from abscess, which can appear very similar on physical examination but necessitate different treatment approaches., Objective: To compare POCUS guidance vs. clinical assessment alone on the management of pediatric skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI) in the emergency department (ED) setting., Methods: Children ages 6 months to 18 years presenting to participating EDs with SSTIs ≥ 1 cm were eligible. All treatment decisions, including use of POCUS, were at the discretion of the treating clinicians. Patients were divided into those managed with POCUS guidance (POCUS group) and those managed using clinical assessment alone (non-POCUS group). Primary outcome was clinical treatment failure at 7-10 days (unscheduled ED return visit or admission, procedural intervention, change in antibiotics therapy). Secondary outcomes were ED length of stay, discharge rate, use of alternative imaging, and need for procedural sedation. POCUS utility and impact on management decisions were also assessed by treating clinicians., Results: In total, 321 subjects (327 lesions) were analyzed, of which 299 (93%) had completed follow-up. There was no significant difference between the POCUS and non-POCUS groups in any of the primary or secondary outcomes. Management plan was changed in the POCUS group in 22.9% of cases (13.8% from medical to surgical, 9.1% from surgical to medical). Clinicians reported increased benefit of POCUS in cases of higher clinical uncertainty., Conclusions: Use of POCUS was not associated with decreased ED treatment failure rate or process outcomes in pediatric SSTI patients. However, POCUS changed the management plan in approximately one in four cases., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Ultrasound (US) aids clinical management of skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI) by differentiating non-purulent cellulitis from abscess. However, purulent SSTI may be present without abscess. Guidelines recommend incision and drainage (I & D) for purulent SSTI, but US descriptions of purulent SSTI without abscess are lacking., Methods: We retrospectively reviewed pediatric emergency department patients with US of the buttock read as negative for abscess. We identified US features of SSTI with adequate interobserver agreement (kappa > 0.45). Six independent observers then ranked presence or absence of these features on US exams. We studied association between US features and positive wound culture using logistic regression models (significance at p < 0.05)., Results: Of 217 children, 35 patients (16%) had cultures positive for pathogens by 8 h after US and 61 patients (32%) had cultures positive by 48 h after US. We found kappa > 0.45 for focal collection > 1.0 cm (κ = 0.57), hyperemia (κ = 0.57), swirling with compression (κ = 0.52), posterior acoustic enhancement (κ = 0.47), and cobblestoning or branching interstitial fluid (κ = 0.45). Only cobblestoning or interstitial fluid was associated with positive wound cultures in logistic regression models at 8 and 48 h., Conclusions: Cobblestoning or interstitial fluid on US may indicate presence of culture-positive, purulent SSTI in patients without US appearance of abscess. Although our study has limitations due to its retrospective design, this US appearance should alert imagers that the patient may benefit from early I & D.

Subscapular space is an uncommon site for abscess formation. There are only seven reports of subscapular abscesses in the literature. Only three of these cases are reported in children. We recently treated a child with subscapular abscess. We performed the literature search using a combination of the keywords: subscapular, scapular, abscess and infection. One case was diagnosed on post-mortem autopsy, and only three of these cases are reported in children. The organism was Staphylococcus aureus in five cases (two were methicillin-resistant S. aureus), Haemophilus influenzae in one case, and no organism was grown in the last case. (Patient received a course of empirical antibiotics and samples did not grow any organism.) We describe a case of spontaneous subscapular abscess in a 7-year-old boy. The abscess was visualised on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and the organism was identified as S. aureus bacteria. The abscess was treated surgically with debridement and antibiotics, and the patient had full recovery with no subsequent effects. Subscapular abscess needs high index of suspicion and early imaging investigation. MRI is the modality of choice for accurate diagnosis. Early intervention leads to favourable outcome, while delays in diagnosis can be fatal.

Case: Dry needling frequently is performed by a variety of practitioners for pain treatment. A 16-year-old boy had dry needling in the posterolateral aspect of the right thigh for treatment of pain after a knee injury. He developed an abscess on the posterolateral distal aspect of the right thigh deep to the site of the dry needling. Treatment included surgical drainage and intravenous antibiotics., Conclusion: Deep infection is a rare but serious complication of dry needling. Standardized guidelines for safety and sterile technique with dry needling are needed to minimize the risk of infection.

Introduction: White blood cell (WBC) scintigraphy for diagnosing fracture-related infections (FRIs) has only been investigated in small patient series. Aims of this study were (1) to establish the accuracy of WBC scintigraphy for diagnosing FRIs, and (2) to investigate whether the duration of the time interval between surgery and WBC scintigraphy influences its accuracy., Patients and Methods: 192 consecutive WBC scintigraphies with 99m Tc-HMPAO-labelled autologous leucocytes performed for suspected peripheral FRI were included. The golden standard was based on the outcome of microbiological investigation in case of surgery, or - when these were not available - on clinical follow-up of at least six months. The discriminative ability of the imaging modalities was quantified by several measures of diagnostic accuracy. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to identify predictive variables of a false-positive or false-negative WBC scintigraphy test result., Results: WBC scintigraphy had a sensitivity of 0.79, a specificity of 0.97, a positive predicting value of 0.91, a negative predicting value of 0.93 and a diagnostic accuracy of 0.92 for detecting an FRI in the peripheral skeleton. The duration of the interval between surgery and the WBC scintigraphy did not influence its diagnostic accuracy; neither did concomitant use of antibiotics or NSAIDs. There were 11 patients with a false-negative (FN) WBC scintigraphy, the majority of these patients (n = 9, 82%) suffered from an infected nonunion. Four patients had a false-positive (FP) WBC scintigraphy., Conclusions: WBC scintigraphy showed a high diagnostic accuracy (0.92) for detecting FRIs in the peripheral skeleton. Duration of the time interval between surgery for the initial injury and the WBC did not influence the results which indicate that WBC scintigraphy is accurate shortly after surgery., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The occurrence of nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) infection is rare, and the involvement of the musculoskeletal system is even less common. However, the incidence of soft tissue and skin NTM infection is increasing, particularly in patients who undergo injections and minor surgical procedures. Given the non-specific clinical manifestations of NTM infection, the lack of knowledge among physicians regarding this rare infection could lead to inaccurate and delayed diagnosis. Herein, we present a case of an isolated subcutaneous NTM infection caused by Mycobacterium abscessus in the upper back of an immunocompetent 68-year-old woman. The clinical presentation, magnetic resonance imaging findings (including diffusion-weighted imaging), and pathologic findings of subcutaneous NTM infection are described and compared with those of tuberculosis and tumor presentations to provide a more accurate clinical picture for a differential diagnosis.

Objective: To determine the added value of CT over planar and SPECT-only imaging in the diagnosis of musculoskeletal infection using 99m Tc-UBI 29-4., Materials and Methods: 184 patients with suspected musculoskeletal infection who underwent planar and SPECT/CT imaging with 99m Tc-UBI 29-41 were included. Planar, SPECT-only and SPECT/CT images were reviewed by two independent analysts for presence of bone or soft tissue infection. Final diagnosis was confirmed with tissue cultures, surgery/histology or clinical follow-up., Results: 99m Tc-UBI 29-41 was true positive in 105/184 patients and true negative in 65/184 patients. When differentiating between soft tissue and bone infection, planar + SPECT-only imaging had a sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value and accuracy of 95.0, 74.3, 84.8, 91.3 and 86.9%, respectively, versus 99.0, 94.5, 92.5, 98.5 and 94.5% for SPECT/CT. SPECT/CT resulted in a change in reviewers' confidence in the final diagnosis in 91/184 patients. Inter-observer agreement was better with SPECT/CT compared with planar + SPECT imaging (kappa 0.87, 95% CI 0.71-0.85 versus kappa 0.81, 95% CI 0.58-0.75)., Conclusion: Addition of CT to planar and SPECT-only imaging led to an increase in diagnostic performance and an improvement in reviewers' confidence and inter-observer agreement in differentiating bone from soft tissue infection.

Objectives: Soft tissue abscesses are common in the pediatric emergency department (ED). Ultrasound (US) can be used to both diagnose soft tissue abscesses as well as guide drainage. We hypothesized that clinical failure rates would be less in pediatric patients with suspected skin abscesses when evaluated with US., Methods: We performed a retrospective review of suspected pediatric skin abscesses at 4 EDs over a 22-month period. Cases were identified through electronic medical record descriptions, discharge diagnoses, and US database records. Data on US use, findings, and outcomes were abstracted to an electronic database. Comparisons between groups included US versus non-US (primary outcome) as well as surgical drainage vs nonsurgical drainage (secondary outcome)., Results: A total of 377 patients were seen with concern for a potential skin abscess; 141 patients (37.4%) underwent US imaging during their visit, and 239 (63.4%) underwent incision and drainage (I&D) during their ED stay: 90 with US and 149 without. The failure rate for patients evaluated with US was significantly lower than that for those evaluated without US (4.4% versus 15.6%; P < .005). Thirty-four (11.3%) of the 302 patients with a diagnosis of an abscess failed therapy: 19 (8.2%) after I&D and 15 (21.1%) after nonsurgical management. Failure after I&D was associated with a smaller abscess cavity on US imaging (17.2 versus 44.8 mm 3 ; P < .05)., Conclusions: The use of US for patients with a suspected skin abscess was associated with a reduction in the amount of clinical failure rates after both surgical drainage and nonsurgical therapy. Ultrasound should be used when evaluating or treating patients with abscesses., (© 2017 by the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine.)

Background: The exact role of IV contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) in the diagnosis of necrotizing soft tissue infections (NSTIs) has not yet been established. We aimed to explore the role of CT in patients with clinical suspicion of NSTI and assess its sensitivity and specificity for NSTI., Methods: The medical records of patients admitted between 2009 and 2016, who received IV contrast-enhanced CT to rule out NSTI, were reviewed. CT was considered positive in case of: (a) gas in soft tissues, (b) multiple fluid collections, (c) absence or heterogeneity of tissue enhancement by the IV contrast, and (d) significant inflammatory changes under the fascia. NSTI was confirmed only by the presence of necrotic tissue during surgical exploration. NSTI was considered absent if surgical exploration failed to identify necrosis, or if the patient was successfully treated non-operatively., Results: Of the 184 patients, 17 had a positive CT and hence underwent surgical exploration with NSTI being confirmed in 13 of them (76%). Of the 167 patients that had a negative CT, 38 (23%) underwent surgical exploration due to the high clinical suspicion for NSTI and were all found to have non-necrotizing infections; the remaining 129 (77%) were managed non-operatively with successful resolution of symptoms. The sensitivity of CT in identifying NSTI was 100%, the specificity 98%, the positive predictive value 76%, and the negative predictive value 100%., Conclusions: A negative IV contrast-enhanced CT scan can reliably rule out the need for surgical intervention in patients with initial suspicion of NSTI.

A Japanese woman aged 76 years with rheumatoid arthritis treated with prednisolone and tocilizumab presented with a 2-day history of redness and pain in her right thigh. She was hospitalised with a primary diagnosis of cellulitis and antimicrobial therapy was initiated. She had been stable until the fourth day of admission, when the swelling of her right thigh rapidly worsened and demonstrated purpura; she was subsequently unable to walk because of the pain. A diagnosis of necrotising soft tissue infection (NSTI) was made and extensive debridement was performed. Over the next 4 months, additional debridement was performed four times. Her condition improved significantly and she was able to walk later. Physicians should recognise that tocilizumab can mask systemic toxicities and inflammatory findings even in severe infections. To avoid delays in diagnosis and surgical intervention, clinicians should consider NSTIs when they encounter patients treated with tocilizumab, even if it mimics cellulitis., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© BMJ Publishing Group Ltd (unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2017. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

Clinicians are increasingly becoming familiar with the value of limited, focused point-of-care ultrasonography (POCUS) to help answer discrete clinical questions. Ultrasound education is being taught in medical schools and physician assistant (PA) and PA postgraduate programs nationwide. This article introduces five basic POC ultrasound scans that can easily be mastered by practicing PAs.

The management and treatment of odontogenic infection, and its frequent extension into the head and neck, remains an important section of oral and maxillofacial surgical practice. This area of maxillofacial expertise is widely recognized by the medical community and an essential component to the hospital referral system. Although the general principles of infection management have not changed, there have been modifications in the timing of treatment sequences and treatment techniques. These modifications are influenced by the development of diagnostic methods and advances in bacterial genetics and antibiotic usage. This article reviews treatment considerations and controversies surrounding this subject., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Infections caused by Diaporthe species are very uncommon. We describe a heart transplant recipient 14 years post transplant who developed a soft tissue fungal infection due to a Diaporthe species that responded well to surgical excision and posaconazole therapy. The Aspergillus galactomannan index was markedly elevated, and returned to normal following treatment. Solid organ transplant patients remain at risk of infection long after transplantation and should be counseled about risk avoidance., (© 2017 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: In patients presenting with skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI), the use of ultrasound may lead to a more accurate distinction between cellulitis and abscess compared with clinical assessment alone., Objectives: This systematic review aims to determine the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound for detecting skin abscesses. In addition, it aims to assess the impact of using ultrasound on management decisions in patients with SSTI., Methods: We searched relevant electronic databases for primary studies including MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL. We searched conference proceedings, checked references of retrieved articles, and contacted field experts. Two reviewers assessed the quality of each full-text publication using a modified QUADAS-2 tool., Results: Five studies (n=710) fulfilled our inclusion criteria. Four studies compared the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound with clinical examination alone (n=584). Most studies reported an improvement in diagnostic accuracy. The sensitivity of ultrasound ranged from 89 to 98% and the specificity ranged from 64 to 88%. However, the sensitivity of clinical assessment ranged from 75 to 90% and the specificity ranged from 55 to 83%; most of these results did not reach statistical significance. Sensitivity was further improved in cases of indeterminate clinical assessment. Two studies (n=176) examined the impact of ultrasound on management decisions. Use of ultrasound has led to significant and appropriate changes in management decisions in 16 to 39% of patients., Conclusion: The use of ultrasound could potentially improve diagnostic accuracy and lead to improved management decisions in patients with SSTI, especially in cases of indeterminate clinical assessment. Most of our findings did not achieve statistical significance. Further research is required to confirm these findings.

Infection of the musculoskeletal system is a common clinical problem. Differentiating soft tissue from osseous infection often determines the appropriate clinical therapeutic course. Radiographs are the recommend initial imaging examination, and although often not diagnostic in acute osteomyelitis, can provide anatomic evaluation and alternative diagnoses influencing subsequent imaging selection and interpretation. MRI with contrast is the examination of choice for the evaluation of suspected osteomyelitis, and MRI, CT, and ultrasound can all be useful in the diagnosis of soft tissue infection. CT or a labeled leukocyte scan and sulfur colloid marrow scan combination are alternative options if MRI is contraindicated or extensive artifact from metal is present. The American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed annually by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and revision include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer reviewed journals and the application of well-established methodologies (RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation or GRADE) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures for specific clinical scenarios. In those instances where evidence is lacking or equivocal, expert opinion may supplement the available evidence to recommend imaging or treatment., (Copyright © 2017 American College of Radiology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To determine the clinical impact of an initiative to use ultrasound (US) as the primary diagnostic modality for children with superficial face and neck infections versus use of computed tomography (CT)., Methods: Children with a diagnosis of lymphadenitis, face or neck abscess, or face and neck cellulitis were retrospectively evaluated by the otolaryngology service. Patients were separated into two groups based on implementation of a departmental initiative to use US as the primary diagnostic modality. The pre-implementation cohort consisted of patients treated prior to the initiative (2006-2009) and the current protocol cohort consisted of patients treated after the initiative was started (2010-2013). Demographics, use of US or CT, necessity of surgical intervention, and failure of medical management were compared., Results: Three hundred seventy three children were evaluated; 114 patients were included in the pre-implementation cohort and 259 patients were included in the current protocol cohort for comparison. Patients presenting during the current protocol period were more likely to undergo US (pre-implementation vs. current protocol, p-value) (12% vs. 49%, p < 0.0001) and less likely to undergo CT (66% vs. 41%, p < 0.0001) for their initial evaluation. There were no differences in the percentage of children who underwent prompt surgical drainage, prompt discharge without surgery, or trial inpatient observation. There were also no differences in the rate of treatment failure for patients undergoing prompt surgery or prompt discharge on antibiotics. For those patients who underwent repeat evaluation following trial medical management, US was used more frequently in the current protocol period (4% vs. 20%, p = 0.002) with no difference in CT use, selected treatment strategy, or treatment failure rates., Conclusion: Increased use of US on initial evaluation of children with superficial face and neck infections resulted in decreased CT utilization, without negatively impacting outcome. Decreasing pediatric radiation exposure and potential long-term effects is of primary importance., (Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Introduction: The successful management of infected pelvic pressure ulcer patients (PPUP) depends on the distinction between infections limited to soft tissue (STI) and those with underlying osteomyelitis (OM), which can be difficult to determine clinically. Dual-isotope (DI) comprehensive imaging has excellent accuracy in localizing diabetic foot infection and differentiating OM from STI with SPECT/CT utilization. In this study, we assess the accuracy and confidence of the different DI SPECT/CT imaging steps in PPUP with confirmed diagnoses., Patients and Methods: Pelvic flow and blood pool imaging were followed by labeled white blood cell reinjection and Tc-99m hydroxymethylene-diphosphonate bone (bone scan) and In-111-leukocytes (white blood cell scan) DI planar and SPECT/CT (step 1) acquisitions. Tc-99m sulfur colloid (bone marrow scan)/WBCS SPECT/CT (step 2) images were obtained on the following day. DI step 1 planar, step 1 SPECT/CT, step 2 SPECT/CT, and combined step 1/step 2 SPECT/CT were reviewed separately for diagnosis and diagnosis confidence. The final diagnosis was confirmed by culture/pathology in 21 patients and clinical/imaging follow-up in 12 patients., Results: There were 19 OM patients, three STI patients, and 11 patients with no infection. The final diagnosis agreement to DI combined step 1/step 2 SPECT/CT was higher than DI step 2 or step 1 SPECT/CT alone, or DI step 1 planar, as assessed by λ and error reduction %, respectively. Combined DI step 1/step 2 SPECT/CT was more sensitive than DI step 2 SPECT/CT and more specific than DI step 1 SPECT/CT, and showed higher diagnostic confidence than both imaging techniques., Conclusion: DI SPECT/CT is highly useful in evaluating PPUP with suspected infection. DI step 1 is more sensitive, whereas step 2 is more specific. Both step 1 and step 2 DI SPECT/CT images are needed to accurately and confidently assess for infection and distinguish OM from STI, which are crucial for optimal management.

A 35-year-old man was admitted to an intensive care unit with unilateral facial swelling and septic shock after multiple presentations to the emergency department with non-specific unilateral pain over the parotid area. A CT scan of his neck showed diffuse right-sided facial soft tissue infection, mastoid effusion and temporal lobe cerebritis. The upper lobes of his lungs had cannonball lesions that were suggestive of septic lung metastases. Blood cultures and ear canal swabs were positive for Burkholderia pseudomallei The temporal lobe cerebritis eventually developed into an abscess, necessitating a cortical mastoidectomy, craniectomy and temporal lobectomy. After the surgical interventions, antibiotic therapy was continued for a further 6 months. The patient remained well and had no signs of recurrence up to 7 months after the initial presentation., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest: None declared., (2017 BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.)

Objectives: The primary objective of this systematic review was to determine the accuracy of point-of-care ultrasonography (POCUS) in diagnosing abscess in emergency department (ED) patients with skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI). The secondary objective was the accuracy of POCUS in the paediatric population subgroup., Setting: Prospective studies set in emergency departments., Participants: Emergency department patients (adult and paediatric) presenting with SSTI and suspected abscess., Primary and Secondary Outcome Measures: This systematic review was conducted according to Cochrane Handbook guidelines, and the following databases were searched: PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane database of systematic reviews (1946-2015). We included prospective cohort and case-control studies investigating ED patients with SSTI and abscess or cellulitis, a defined POCUS protocol, a clearly defined gold standard for abscess and a contingency table describing sensitivity and specificity. Two reviewers independently ascertained all potentially relevant citations for methodologic quality according to QUADAS-2 criteria. The primary outcome measure was the sensitivity and specificity of POCUS for abscess. A preplanned subgroup (secondary) analysis examined the effects in paediatric populations, and changes in management were explored post hoc., Results: Of 3028 articles, 8 were identified meeting inclusion criteria; all were rated as good to excellent according to QUADAS-2 criteria. Combined test characteristics of POCUS on the ED diagnosis of abscess for patients with SSTI were as follows: sensitivity 96.2% (95% CI 91.1% to 98.4%), specificity 82.9% (95% CI 60.4% to 93.9%), positive likelihood ratio 5.63 (95% CI 2.2 to 14.6) and negative likelihood ratio 0.05 (95% CI 0.01 to 0.11)., Conclusions: A total of 8 studies of good-to-excellent quality were included in this review. The use of POCUS helps differentiate abscess from cellulitis in ED patients with SSTI., Trial Registration Number: CRD42015017115., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest: None declared., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://www.bmj.com/company/products-services/rights-and-licensing/.)

Background: The role of diagnostic imaging in suspected necrotizing soft tissue infections (NSTIs) is not clear owing to concerns about its value and possible delays in definitive surgical care., Methods: Plain radiograph (XR) and computed tomography (CT) results of all patients who underwent operative debridement for a presumed NSTI from 2007 through 2014 at LAC + USC Medical Center were reviewed. Preoperative imaging was classified as being negative, suspicious (inflammatory changes), or diagnostic (soft tissue gas) for NSTI., Results: Of 226 patients undergoing operative exploration for a suspected NSTI, 172 (76.1%) were found to have a true NSTI based on intraoperative or pathology findings. In patients with true NSTI, preoperative XR and CT demonstrated soft tissue gas in 47.9% and 70.3% of cases, respectively. CT diagnosed or highly suspected NSTI in 97.3% of cases with true NSTI compared to 83.6% with XR; p < 0.001)., Conclusion: CT was superior to XR in the radiologic evaluation of patients with suspected NSTIs., Level of Evidence: Diagnostic test, level IV.

Background: Traditionally, emergency department (ED) physicians rely on their clinical examination to differentiate between cellulitis and abscess when evaluating skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI). Management of an abscess requires incision and drainage, whereas cellulitis generally requires a course of antibiotics. Misdiagnosis often results in unnecessary invasive procedures, sedations (for incision and drainage in pediatric patients), or a return ED visit for failed antibiotic therapy., Objective: The objective was to describe the operating characteristics of point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) compared to clinical examination in identifying abscesses in ED patients with SSTI., Methods: We systematically searched Medline, Web of Science, EMBASE, CINAHL, and Cochrane Library databases from inception until May 2015. Trials comparing POCUS with clinical examination to identify abscesses when evaluating SSTI in the ED were included. Trials that included intraoral abscesses or abscess drainage in the operating room were excluded. The presence of an abscess was defined by drainage of pus. The absence of an abscess was defined as no pus drainage upon incision and drainage or resolution of SSTI without pus drainage at follow-up. Quality of trials was assessed using the QUADAS-2 tool. Operating characteristics were reported as sensitivity, specificity, positive likelihood ratio (LR+), and negative likelihood ratio (LR-), with their respective 95% confidence intervals (CI). Summary measures were calculated by generating a hierarchical summary receiver operating characteristic (HSROC) model., Results: Of 3,203 references identified, six observational studies (four pediatric trials and two adult trials) with a total of 800 patients were included. Two trials compared clinical examination with clinical examination plus POCUS. The other four trials directly compared clinical examination to POCUS. The POCUS HSROC revealed a sensitivity of 97% (95% CI = 94% to 98%), specificity of 83% (95% CI = 75% to 88%), LR+ of 5.5 (95% CI = 3.7 to 8.2), and LR- of 0.04 (95% CI = 0.02 to 0.08)., Conclusion: Existing evidence indicates that POCUS is useful in identifying abscess in ED patients with SSTI. In cases where physical examination is equivocal, POCUS can assist physicians to distinguish abscess from cellulitis., (© 2016 by the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.)

Infection of the musculoskeletal system can be associated with high mortality and morbidity if not promptly and accurately diagnosed. These infections are generally diagnosed and managed clinically; however, clinical and laboratory findings sometimes lack sensitivity and specificity, and a definite diagnosis may not be possible. In uncertain situations, imaging is frequently performed to confirm the diagnosis, evaluate the extent of the disease, and aid in treatment planning. In particular, cross-sectional imaging, including computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, provides detailed anatomic information in the evaluation of soft tissues due to their inherent high spatial and contrast resolution. Imaging findings of soft-tissue infections can be nonspecific and can have different appearances depending on the depth and anatomic extent of tissue involvement. Although many imaging features of infectious disease can overlap with noninfectious processes, imaging can help establish the diagnosis when combined with the clinical history and laboratory findings. Radiologists should be familiar with the spectrum of imaging findings of soft-tissue infections to better aid the referring physician in managing these patients. The aim of this article is to review the spectrum of soft-tissue infections using a systematic anatomic compartment approach. We discuss the clinical features of soft-tissue infections, their imaging findings with emphasis on cross-sectional imaging, their potential mimics, and clinical management. © RSNA, 2016.

Fusobacterium infection is common in herd animals and caged birds; the infection is typically referred to as "bumble foot" or "foot rot." These are opportunistic anaerobic bacteria that cause abscesses in the feet of animals that have developed inflammation in the foot pad secondary to the terrain. In humans, F. varium is known to cause abscesses associated with the oropharynx and gastrointestinal tract, also known as Lemierre's disease. The present study reports the case of a rare presentation of a F. varium soft tissue infection of the heel pad in a healthy young female with no associated oropharynx or gastrointestinal abscesses. Therefore, her presentation and disease course were similar to that described in herd animals. The patient was treated with 3 weeks of intravenous antibiotics, incision and drainage, and a gracilis free flap to the weightbearing surface of the right heel., (Copyright © 2015 American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Infection is the commonest foot complication that arises in people with diabetes and may lead to amputation and even death. The emergence of multidrug resistant bacteria, especially in Gram negative rods, may have a negative impact on the chances of cure in these patients., Areas Covered: We searched the Medline and Pubmed databases for studies using the keywords 'diabetic foot infection' and 'diabetic foot osteomyelits' from 1980 to 2016. Expert commentary: Much has been done in the field of diabetic foot infection regarding pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment. The construction of multidisciplinary teams is probably the most efficient way to improve the patients' outcome. The rational use of antibiotics and surgical skills are essential in these potentially severe infections. Each case of diabetic infection deserves to be discussed in the light of the current guidelines and the local resources. Because of the overal poor outcome of these infections, prevention remains a priority.

Pedal infection is a difficult diagnostic problem for clinicians and radiologists alike, especially in patients with diabetes. Vascular and neuropathic disease complicates the clinical picture and imaging appearance. Radiographs are usually the first examination ordered, offering an excellent overview of previous surgery, structural deformities, and neuropathic joint disease. Ultrasound and computed tomography are occasionally useful to answer specific questions. Scintigraphy has become less popular because MRI provides high sensitivity and specificity as well as detailed anatomical information. Almost all diabetic foot infections originate from a foot ulcer. Thus demonstrating communication from the skin to underlying bones, joints, tendons, and other structures is key. Careful examination of the soft tissues at MR imaging allows the radiologist to determine the extent of soft tissue infection, the presence of abscesses and septic tenosynovitis, as well as the presence of necrotic tissue. Pitfalls include fracture, neuropathic osteoarthropathy, neoplasia, and noninfectious inflammatory conditions such as gout., (Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.)

Skin and soft tissue infections may progress rapidly and take a fatal ending unless not treated in time. A 44-year old male patient without any pre-existing conditions got hospitalized with a bursitis ofthe right olecranon and unspecific general symptoms. Within a short period of time he became critically ill due this seemingly harmless infection. We describe our approach leading to the right diagnoses and the treatment of this unexpected progress., (© Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart · New York.)

Background: Point-of-care ultrasound is emerging as an important imaging modality for characterizing soft-tissue infections and provides advantages over physical examination and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)., Case Report: A 30-year-old man presented to the emergency department with extensive left upper extremity cellulitis. Magnetic resonance imaging of the left arm was preliminarily interpreted as soft-tissue swelling without evidence of deep-space infection. Point-of-care ultrasound revealed pockets of fluid with sonographic fluctuance tracking along the tendon sheath that were concerning for deep abscesses. Based on the ultrasound findings, the patient was taken emergently to the operating room, where multiple left hand and wrist loculated deep-space abscesses were decompressed. WHY SHOULD AN EMERGENCY PHYSICIAN BE AWARE OF THIS?: This case report highlights the significant advantages and easy-to-learn findings present in point-of-care ultrasound of musculoskeletal infections., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The use of point-of-care ultrasonography as a noninvasive diagnostic tool for soft tissue infections has been shown to be superior to clinical judgment alone in determining the presence or absence of an occult abscess. As ultrasound-guided procedures become standard of care, there is an increasing demand to develop better and inexpensive simulation models to educate trainees. To date, there are no low-cost models for abscess simulation that can be constructed with minimal preparation time, be reused, and withstand multiple procedural attempts., Objective: To create an inexpensive, readily available, and reusable homemade ultrasound phantom that simulates a superficial soft tissue abscess and can be easily constructed., Discussion: We experimented with precooked polenta to create a model that would appear similar to human soft tissue under ultrasound examination. Paintballs were embedded in the polenta and evaluated at different depths until a sonographically satisfactory phantom abscess model was obtained. The use of a precooked commercial polenta phantom and commercial paintballs required minimal preparation and closely replicated a superficial soft tissue abscess on ultrasonographic examination. Various paintball brands and sizes were evaluated to confirm ease of reproducibility. The polenta can be reshaped easily and the model may be punctured or incised multiple times., Conclusion: A homemade high-fidelity simulation phantom that simulates an abscess in superficial soft tissue can be made inexpensively in <5 min and reused for numerous trainees. This model allows for training for procedures such as ultrasound-guided abscess drainage., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objectives: To determine the test characteristics of point-of-care ultrasonography for the identification of a drainable abscess and to compare the test characteristics of ultrasonography with physical examination. In addition, we sought to measure the extent to which ultrasonography impacts clinical management of children with skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs)., Study Design: We performed a prospective study of children with SSTIs evaluated in a pediatric emergency department. Treating physicians recorded their initial impression of whether a drainable abscess was present based on physical examination. Another physician, blinded to the treating physician's assessment, performed an ultrasound study and conveyed their interpretation and recommendations to the treating physician. Any management change was recorded. An abscess was defined as a lesion from which purulent fluid was expressed during a drainage procedure in the emergency department or during the 2- to 5-day follow-up period. We defined a change in management as correct when the ultrasound diagnosis was discordant from physical examination and matched the ultimate lesion classification., Results: Of 151 SSTIs evaluated among 148 patients, the sensitivity and specificity of point-of-care ultrasonography for the presence of abscess were 96% (95% CI 90%-99%) and 87% (74%-95%), respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of physical examination for the presence of abscess were 84% (75%-90%) and 60% (44%-73%), respectively. For every 4 ultrasound examinations performed, there was 1 correct change in management., Conclusions: Point-of-care ultrasonography demonstrates excellent test characteristics for the identification of skin abscess and has superior test characteristics compared with physical examination alone., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Ultrasonography (US) of the breast and axilla is primarily used to evaluate a symptomatic patient or to further investigate findings identified with other imaging modalities. Breast imagers are generally familiar with US evaluation of level I, II, and III axillary lymph nodes in the diagnosis and staging of breast cancer. However, the axilla contains nonlymphatic tissue as well, including muscle, fat, and vascular and neurologic structures, and anatomically the breast lies on the chest wall. Therefore, lesions of nonmammary and non-lymph node origin in the axilla or chest wall are not infrequently encountered during US evaluation of the breast or axilla. In fact, such lesions may be the reason that the patient presents to the breast imaging department for evaluation. Understanding the anatomy of the chest wall and axilla and using a systematic US approach will help radiologists expedite accurate diagnosis, suggest optimal additional imaging, and streamline appropriate clinical referral. Key imaging features of nonmammary non-lymph node masses are highlighted, and case examples are provided to illustrate these features. Appropriate patient management is critical in these cases because referral to a breast surgeon may not be the best next step. Depending on institutional referral patterns, other subspecialty surgeons will be involved. Online supplemental material is available for this article., (©RSNA, 2016.)

Due to an increasing amount of patients on immunosuppressive treatment, the number of tuberculosis (TB) of atypical course and extrapulmonary tuberculosis cases increase. Locomotor system is a place of every fifth case of extrapulmonary TB. Because of lack of characteristic symptoms, as well as rare co-occurrence of active lung lesions in radiological imaging, proper diagnosis is hard to establish. We present a case of patient on immunosuppressive therapy due to myositis, in whom we diagnosed musculoskeletal tuberculosis in form of involvement of tendon sheath and formation of synovial cyst.

Objective: After implantation of a metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty (MoM THA), a large incidence of pseudotumor formation has been described recently. Several centers have invited patients for follow-up in order to screen for pseudotumor formation. The spectrum of abnormalities found by CT in MoM THA patients can be unfamiliar to radiologists and orthopedic surgeons. Previously, a CT five-point grading scale has been published. In this paper, a simplification into a three-point classification system gives insight in the morphological distinction of abnormalities of the postoperative hip capsule in MoM implants in relation to the decision for revision. The reliability of this simplified classification regarding intra- and interrater reliability and its association with revision rate is investigated and discussed., Materials and Methods: All patients who underwent MoM THA in our hospital were invited for screening. Various clinical measures and CT scan were obtained in a cross-sectional fashion. A decision on revision surgery was made shortly after screening. CT scans were read in 582 patients, of which 82 patients were treated bilaterally. CT scans were independently single read by two board-certified radiologists and classified into categories I-V. In a second meeting, consensus was obtained. Categories were subsequently rubricated in class A (categories I and II), B (category III), and C (categories IV and V). Intra- and inter-radiologist agreement on MoM pathology was assessed by means of the weighted Cohen's kappa. Categorical data were presented as n (%), and tested by means of Fisher's exact test. Continuous data were presented as median (min-max) and tested by means of Mann-Whitney U test (two group comparison) or Kruskal-Wallis test (three group comparison). Logistic regression analysis was performed in order to study independence of CT class for association with revision surgery. Univariate statistically significant variables were entered in a multiple model. All statistical analysis was performed two-tailed using alpha 5% as the significance level., Results: In total, 664 scores from 664 MoM hips obtained by two observers were available for analyses. Interobserver reliability for the non-simplified version (I-V) was κw = 0.71 (95% CI: 0.62-0.79), which indicates good agreement between the two musculoskeletal radiologists. Intra- and interobserver reliability for the simplified version (A-C) were respectively κw 0.78 (95% CI: 0.68-0.87), and κw = 0.71 (95% CI: 0.65-0.76). This indicates good agreement within and between the two observers. The simplified A-C version is significantly associated with revision exclusively due to MoM pathology, in both patients with unilateral MoM THA (p < 0.001) and patients with bilateral MoM THA (p < 0.044). The simplified A-C version is associated with several clinical measures. In patients with unilateral MoM THA, with or without contralateral THA, in situ time (p < 0.008), cobalt and chromium (p < 0.001) were statistically significant. In patients with bilateral MoM, cobalt (p < 0.001) and chromium (p < 0.027) were statistically significant. Revision is significantly associated with cup size (p < 0.001), anteversion of the cup (p < 0.004), serum ion levels of cobalt and chromium (p < 0.001) and the adapted classification system (p < 0.001). In univariate logistic regression analysis on revision, cup, anteversion of the cup, cobalt-chromium ion serum levels, and the simplified (A-C) CT category system were statistically significant. The simplified (A-C) CT category system was an independent associate of revision, in several multiple logistic regression models., Conclusions: The presented simplified CT grading system (A-C) in its first clinical validation on 48- and 64-multislice systems is reliable, showing good intra- and interrater reliability and is independently associated with revision surgery.

An overview of the imaging of face and neck infections is presented. Most of the imaging presented is contrast-enhanced computed tomography. The emphasis of this presentation is to enable the emergency radiologist to accurately diagnose face and neck infections, to effectively communicate the imaging findings with emergency physicians, and to function as part of a team offering the best care to patients., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Necrotizing soft tissue infections (NSTIs) of the abdominal wall usually occur when either a common superficial soft tissue infection progresses down to, or an injury (e.g. knife stab) penetrates, the investing muscle fascia, or an intra-abdominal infection spreads directly to the muscle layers of the abdominal wall. These infections are severe and associated with significant morbidity and mortality. We present an 83-year-old female diabetic patient who was admitted to the surgical emergency department complaining of right abdominal pain after a fall to the floor. She had previously received oral antibiotics for a minor superficial skin infection attributed to her subcutaneous use of insulin. On admission she exhibited signs of agitation and dyspnoea with hypotension and tachycardia (systolic arterial pressure 90mmHg, heart rate >110 bpm, oxygen saturation 88%). Furthermore, she had a tender right abdomen but without any demonstrable pathology on her skin or crepitus. Arterial blood gases revealed metabolic acidosis and hypoxaemia. An abdominal computed tomography (CT) scan demonstrated signs of infection of the entire right anterior abdominal wall and the LRINEC score was calculated to be 13. Subsequent operative aggressive necrosectomy of all the involved layers of the right anterolateral abdominal wall sparing the peritoneum was undertaken. Unfortunately, the patient died the next day due to multiple organ failure.

Gas detected within the systemic circulation as an unexpected finding is a very rare phenomenon. A case of multiple bubbles within the inferior vena cava detected incidentally during a sonogram requested to assess for portal vein thrombosis is presented. These were eventually determined to be sequelae of a fatal, clinically silent necrotizing soft tissue infection. The differential diagnosis for gas within the inferior vena cava is reviewed, and teaching points that may help future patients are presented.

Skin and sott tissue infections, including abscesses and cellulitides, are common problems seen by physicians. The treatment of soft tissue infections varies depending on the depth of infection or the presence of a fluid collection requiring incision and drainage. Ultrasound is a valuable tool in the evaluation of skin and soft tissue infections, enhancing our ability to diagnose an abscess cavity or deeper infection and has been shown to be more reliable than clinical exam alone. The judicious use of ultrasound allows for more appropriate patient care and management of their underlying infection. It can prevent an unnecessary procedure or identify occult abscesses that may go on to develop a more severe infection requiring hospitalization. In this article,we discuss the utility of ultrasound as a diagnostic tool for skin and soft tissue infections, techniques to optimize scanning, and the potential drawbacks of its use.

Background: Myonecrosis can rapidly develop in soft tissue necrotizing infections, often with initial sparing of the skin. Despite the improvements in management of necrotizing soft tissue infections, mortality remains high, according to the location, microbial agents and comorbidities, ranging between 17 and 46 %. A prompt diagnosis represents the greatest challenge for the emergency physician., Case Report: We describe the case of a patient with a history of hypertension and arrhythmia who developed nonclostridial necrotizing fasciitis with extensive myonecrosis, after articular infiltration procedure. A bedside focused ultrasonography (US) revealed disappearance of the regular fibrillar architecture of the long head of biceps muscle, with diffuse abnormal hyperechogenicity assembled in a "clod pattern". Computed tomography (CT) of the right arm did not depict muscle involvement, but showed a small gas collection around the shoulder, spreading to the subclavian region behind the major pectoral muscle. Necrotizing fasciitis with wide myonecrosis was confirmed by surgical debridement. Microbiological results showed a Staphylococcus aureus infection, managed by a selected antibiotic therapy. The patient was discharged after a small period of mechanical ventilation., Conclusion: This is the first report of a previously healthy patient developing a nonclostridial necrotizing fasciitis with extensive myonecrosis attributable to infiltrative procedure and detected early by bedside US in emergency department. The role of bedside US in the emergency setting may save time for the prompt management of life-threatening necrotizing infections.

MR imaging appearances of different types of reconstructive muscle flaps following reconstructive surgery of the lower extremity with associated post-surgical changes due to altered anatomy, radiation, and potential complications, can be challenging. A multidisciplinary therapeutic approach to tumors allows for limb salvage therapy in a majority of the patients. Decision-making for specific types of soft tissue reconstruction is based on the body region affected, as well as the size and complexity of the defect. Hematomas and infections are early complications that can jeopardize flap viability. The local recurrence of a tumor within six months after a complete resection with confirmed tumor-free margins and adjuvant radiation therapy is rare. Identification of a new lesion similar to the initial tumor favors a finding of tumor recurrence.

A 52-year-old man presented to the emergency department with a 3-day history of fevers and left flank pain radiating to the chest and neck. Total WBC count was 20,000/uL. Abdominal CT demonstrated small bibasilar pleural effusions. Because of persistent leukocytosis, an In WBC scintigram was ordered 5 days after admission, which demonstrated thoracic WBC accumulation on the planar images that localized to the left posterior chest wall on SPECT/CT. SPECT/CT may differentiate intrathoracic versus extrathoracic disease.