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To get the protection for essentially derived variety, the initial variety must be a protected first, because the dependence can onlyexist in relation to protected variety. While determining whether a variety is EDV or not, it is to be noted that, an EDV can bedirectly derived from the initial variety or from any variety that itself is predominantly derived from the initial variety. Hencethere can be "cascade" of derivations. In determining the cascade of derivation, it should be noted that each EDV shall only bedependent on one, the protected initial variety; a cascade of dependence shall not exist. This principle of dependence has beenintroduced to better protect the breeder of the initial variety and not those having made just derivations. More recently, based onthe general opinion of its members, ISF moved to the definition of only one threshold that would divide the scale of conformityinto two parts: below the threshold there would be no presumption of essential derivation, above the threshold there would bepresumption of essential derivation and the burden of proof of non predominant derivation would fall on the breeder of theputative essentially derived variety. The threshold will certainly vary from species to species, depending on the existing geneticvariability within the species and the established breeding procedures. To eliminate the ‘copycat breeding’ or ‘cosmetic breeding’,the concept of ‘essential derivation’ was included in the revised UPOV convention Act (UPOV, 1991).This paper thereforefocuses on the imminent challenges to the breeders and the responsibilities they need to shoulder to respect and promote the IPand plant variety protection in India to usher in an era of incentives and benefit sharing for the plant breeders.

Northeastern part of Anatolia is a gene center of grapevine and a wide diversity of Fox grapes grow here. Viticulture and some grapevines in the Black Sea Region (in the north of Turkey) are on the verge of extinction; several types and varieties grown in this region have never been described and did not survive till present. For the past 10 years vineyards and grapevines in the Black Sea Region have been studied. In the present study, eighteen grapevines of foxy taste grown in the Artvin and Rize provinces were described. An ampelographic description of young shoot, mature shoot, young leaf, mature leaf, berry, bunch and seed were carried out using the OIV (Office International de la Vigne et du Vin) list for grapevine cultivars and Vitis species. However, several other parameters of the cultivars were measured for evaluation.

O artigo discute como o processo de reconhecimento de direitos de melhoristas, na forma de proteção de cultivares, no Brasil se fez a partir de uma estratégia nacional de articular propriedade intelectual e desenvolvimento tecnológico nacional. A proteção intelectual é entendida como mecanismo de articulação e coordenação entre os agentes envolvidos no processo de inovação. A metodologia de coleta de dados consistiu na análise dos titulares de cultivares protegidas no Brasil disponibilizados pelo Serviço Nacional de Proteção de Cultivares, cruzando esses dados com os constantes do relatório de acompanhamento da produção de sementes no Brasil, elaborado pela Embrapa em parceria com o Ministério da Agricultura e a Abrasem. Entre as principais conclusões está a de que o processo de reorganização da pesquisa pública, por meio de parcerias estruturadas em torno do desenvolvimento de novos cultivares contribuiu fortemente para a manutenção da presença pública no mercado de sementes, todavia, varia entre as espécies pesquisadas.This article discusses the recent Brazilian strategy in the field of intellectual property rights applied to new varieties and seeds. Intellectual property is here understood as an economic tool to articulate and to coordinate the economic and technical agents involved in the process of development and diffusing of new varieties and seeds. The article deals with data from the National Service on Variety Protection and also with data from the Brazilian seed market. Among the main findings it shows that the recent strategy of EMBRAPA (the national public research institution) along with the recent emergence of foundations of seed production and commercialization (formed by small seed producers in different regions of the country), has caused important changes in the seed market structure. Of course, this movement has not been equal among all species and all market branches, but it is actually impressive among some of them (like corn and soybean seed markets). In this process, public research institutions can play an important role, especially if they are capable to build strong capabilities in dealing not only with genetics and seed production, but also with the national and the international regulatory frameworks.

Copyright of Agro Productividad is the property of Colegio de Postgraduados and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Several African countries and regional organizations are investing in the establishment of a plant variety protection system modeled on the UPOV 1991 Convention, which currently provides the strongest, international standard for plant variety protection. Whereas proponents argue that strong protection of breeder's rights will incentivize breeding and the introduction of new varieties for farmers, opponents fear that the proposed legal framework is unsuitable for African countries as it may hamper traditional farming practices of using and exchanging farm-saved seed. These informal or farmer-managed seed systems supply more than 80% of the total food crop seed used by farmers. The challenge for African countries is to strike a balance between protecting the interests of breeders through the incentive function of plant breeder's rights for the commercial market, and the leeway that needs to be provided to smallholder farmers that depend on informal sources for their seed security and survival. And to do so in a practical and legally enforceable manner. This paper explores how African countries and regional organizations can establish such balance through a differentiated approach to plant variety protection, which sets different levels of protection for different crops in relation to different categories of farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The protection of plants through the patent system and through a sui generis system of plant variety protection causes numerous difficulties and tensions when the protection granted overlaps and intersects. This article explores the particular difficulties that arise in relation to plant research. It considers and contrasts the scope of the research exception as it applies to intellectual property rights (IPR) and the difficulties caused by the divergences in scope. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Kazakhstan-Siberia nursery (KASIB) for the spring wheat improvement under the aegis of the CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) has been identified for a ten-year period by five cultivar blocks analyzed for the gliadin composition (1B/1R traslocation), compositions of high-molecular weight (HMW) and low-molecular weight (LMW) glutenin subunits, and the grain hardness class. A composition of HMW glutenin subunits is presented according to the Union for Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) regulations for characteristics 27, 28, and 29 of the system for testing the uniformity, distinctness, and stability of 188 uniform specimens. Most spring wheat varieties are characterized by the formulas '2* 7 + 9 5 + 10' (up to 40% of all uniform varieties), '2* 7 + 9 2 + 12' (up to 30% of all uniform varieties), and '1 7 + 95 + 10' (up to 8% of specimens). In the Kazakhstan gene pool of varieties, the genotypes with the novel 4 + 10 subunit on the 1D chromosome has been detected in the Erythrospermum 55/94-01-20 and Phyton 41 specimens. The Iridost cultivar is identified as a carrier of the comparatively rare 5.5 + 10 allele on the 1D chromosome, which has been previously detected in the Tselinogradka, Tselinnaya 24, and Akmola 3 varieties. A rare 7* + 8 subunit is typical for the E-607 and E-757 genotypes. The specimen uniformity level is the highest in 3 KASIB components (8, 9; 10-11; and 12, 13) and comprises 74-84%. The wheat-rye 1 BL.1RS translocation is predominantly identified in specimens selected at the Siberian Research Institute of Agriculture (SibNIISKhOZ) and the East-Kazakhstan Research Institute of Agriculture (VKNIISKh) and found at each KASIB block; it is indicated in all specimens presented by the Kurgansemena Close Corporation and the Agrosemconsult, LLP, as well as selected at the Fiton, LLP. Cultivars such as Altaiskaya 105, Kurganskaya 5, Lutecsence 1300, Phyton 42, Lutecsence 53/95-98-1, Lutecsence 53/88-94-12, Lutecsence 54, Lutecsence 30-94, Erythrospermum 607, and Aktobe 1574 have been characterized by a wide range of variation in grain hardness from semisoft to hard under different growth conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world's apple production is based on only a few dozen cultivars. In countries with an advanced food culture and growing environmental awareness, the demand for bio fruits and products is also increasing. The proportion of organic orchards is quite low (1-2 %) in Hungary. As regards application of cultivars, there are two possible solutions. One is to introduce new resistant cultivars from the national breeding programme into cultivation. The second is to evaluate old local cultivars to decide if they could be used in modern production systems. Our general aims are to characterise the cultivars in the apple gene bank of the Corvinus University of Budapest using morphological markers and to investigate the biodiversity of the collection. Morphological and biological characterisation of 56 different old cultivars was performed using the Union Internationale pour la Protection des Obtentions Végétales (UPOV) descriptions. The collection exhibited great genetic diversity. The morphological similarity indexes suggest great distances between the cultivars. On the basis of hierarchical cluster analysis, all the cultivars differed greatly from the others with the exception of cultivars and cultivar groups which originated from bud mutations. It is currently hoped to re-register a number of old cultivars in Hungary, so information on the pomological characteristics of these cultivars will soon be of key importance. The biodiversity of the cultivars used by growers could be maintained or even widened by using the old cultivars stored in the gene bank as parents during the breeding process. Old cultivars possessing exceptional value and good pest and disease resistance can also be used in organic orchards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the fair and equitable exceptions for farming practice in plant intellectual property rights protection in Taiwan. Topics discussed include privilege of farmers in plant variety rights system, conditional exhaustion of right doctrine, and the use of legal reform adapt compulsory licensing to agricultural issues.

The research describes the field comparison of 90 inbred lines of castor plant derived from both selected and wild germplasm. It was carried out in central-western Italy. An important aim of this work was to describe each inbred line based on 19 morphological traits concerning stem, leaves, racemes and capsules and then to suggest a list of descriptors to International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants as to conduct the Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability test also on the castor plant. The plants in the field were grown at wide distances to avoid competition and enable observation of the growth habit, particularly the specific capacity of branching. An additional characterization of the inbred lines was obtained measuring 7 quantitative traits related to main stem and first raceme; the number of racemes per plant was used to quantify the plant branching. The results allowed distinguishing almost all the genotypes using only the morphological traits. Nectaries at the node, emergences on the stem and petioles, colour of nectaries on petiole resulted important plant descriptors. The two pairs of inbred lines (Tor87#9 vs. Tor87#83 and Pod87#255Hy2 vs. Rot95#55-23) were distinguished thanks to the quantitative traits. Based on the morphological traits, two UPGMA dendrograms, one for the dwarf and one for the normal genotypes, were characterized and the resulting clusters better explained the relationships among the various inbred lines. Six genotypes (Pod87#389, Tor87#81A, Tor87#220B, Tor87#287, Tor87#287Hy, and Liba21) resulted unable to flower in the field; in these inbred lines the induction to flower is particularly influenced by the environmental growth conditions. Regarding the branching ability, the strong apical dominance of two inbred lines (Pod94#31-2 and Pod93#211) obtained from previous breeding programs was confirmed and it was possible to detect other interesting genotypes (Pod87#287A, Pod87#287B, Tor86#67). The several inbred lines described herein showed a wide range of phenotypes that might be useful in various fields of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article aims to assess the effectiveness of providing Intellectual Property Protection (IPP) to the plant genetic resources (PGR) of farmers' varieties in India through the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights (PPV&FR) Act. Topics discussed include the trends in the Receipt of Applications for IPR, and the difficulties encountered upon registration of farmers' varieties such as registration process, and varieties with similar characters or same denomination.

Highlights: [•] Methods to measure the rosebush visual quality: UPOV, sensory, morphometric. [•] UPOV scales: widely recognised, but only partially confirmed by measurements. [•] Sensory methods: close to consumers’ perception, but subjective and time consuming. [•] Counting of flowers: more objective, but time consuming. [•] Image analysis: good index of observers’ perception, not of the number of flowers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Copyright of Propiedad Inmaterial is the property of Universidad Externado de Colombia, Centro de Estudios de la Propriedad Intelectual and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Intellectual property rights (IPRs) can be largely defined as the legal rights recognized over innovative or inventive ideas. Establishment of a legal scaffold of IPR signifies to the society that creative and inventive ideas will be waged. As plant varieties have features that build industrial patent protection challenging, they are subject to so-called 'sui generis' ('of its own kind') protection systems. The most widely used sui generis systems for protecting plant varieties are those of the UPOV Conventions. The Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) was established in 1961, as a separate intergovernmental organization and not as "treaty" where most industrialized countries, and a growing number of developing countries, are members of an UPOV Convention. The OAPI system represents a harmonized regional approach to PVP in which one application covers all member countries. This is similar to the service of the European Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO), although separate national PVP systems also exist in member countries. In this review IPR issues related to plant varieties and transgenic crops and its impact on National agricultural research system are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims Preservation of cultivar purity creates a particular challenge for plants that are self-incompatible, require insects for cross-pollination, and have easily germinating seeds and vigorously spreading rhizomes. As the fields must be planted with mixed populations, and a balance must be maintained between the cultivars to achieve effective pollination, methods for field monitoring of the relative density of different cultivars must be practical. Furthermore, a DNA-based method is needed for cultivar verification in the collections and outside of the growing season. The aim of this study was to develop both types of methods for Rubus arcticus (arctic bramble). Methods Morphological parameters were measured from six cultivars grown on three farms. Observations from the flowers and fruits included: petal and sepal number, flower diameter, arrangement of petals, size of calyx in relation to corolla, fruit weight, yield and soluble sugars. Observations from the leaves included: width and height of middle leaflet, shape of the base of terminal leaflet, shape of terminal leaflet, leaf margin serration and fingertip touch. The applicability of simple sequence repeat (SSR) or microsatellite DNA markers developed for red raspberry was tested on eight arctic bramble cultivars. Key Results and Conclusions Morphological and molecular identification methods were developed for R. arcticus. The best morphological characteristics were the length-to-width ratio of the middle leaflet and leaf margin serration. A particular characteristic, fingertip touch, was shown by electron microscopy to be related to the density and quality of the leaf hairs. Red raspberry SSR marker no. 126 proved to be applicable for differentiation of the eight arctic bramble cultivars tested. These identification methods are critical to secure the maintenance and management of R. arcticus. However, the challenges faced and approaches taken are equally applicable to other species with similar biology. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Apricot germplasm collection and characterization are the essential stages of breeding programs for diversity. Traditionally, germplasm collection and characterization are performed by describing phenological, pomological, and morphological characteristics of the germplasm. In this study, 93 apricot accessions and 1 apricot x plum hybrid (Kayısı EriğI) were collected from different regions of Turkey and were evaluated for 57 morphological UPOV (International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants) characteristics, along with 13 pomological traits. Turkish apricot trees were generally found to be either strong (29.8%) or very strong (54.3%). Only 12 accessions (GÜ-52, Çanakkale, Çekirge-52, Karacabey, Geç Aprikoz, Güz Aprikozu, Alyanak, Hasanbey, Alkaya, Paşa MişmişI, Ağerik, and Ziraat Okulu) had large fruits. Of the total 93 specimens, 67 accessions did not exhibit kernel bitterness. Important dried cultivars of Turkey contain more than 25% total soluble solids (TSS). The harvest period of the majority (84 accessions) started at the end of June and lasted until mid-July. Principle coordinate analysis (PCoA) and principle component analysis (PCA) revealed that eigenvalues of the first 3 components were able to represent 32.67% of total variance in PCoA and 23.63% of total variance in PCA. The eigenvalue of pomological PCA analysis was able to represent 73% of total variance. Significant negative correlations were determined among fruit juice acidity, TSS, and pH. The morphological distance index between Turkish apricots varied from 0.21 to 0.79. Information revealed in this study may be useful for both breeders and apricot breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solidity of microsatellite markers is a key issue for varietal identification, especially when they are used for legal purposes, what includes their probable future use in the distinctness, uniformity and stability testing of new varieties needed for the granting of Plant Breeders' Rights. Nine grapevine microsatellites (VVS2, VVMD5, VVMD27, VVMD28, ssrVrZAG29, ssrVrZAG62, ssrVrZAG67, ssrVrZAG83 and ssrVrZAG112), which had previously demonstrated its capacity to discriminate any grapevine variety, have been assessed to evaluate its uniformity and stability. 19 varieties were selected, representative of a high diversity for morphological, agronomical, cultural and historical aspects, as well as for microsatellite allele variability. Then, for each variety, uniformity and stability were evaluated through the analysis of 50 plants from each of three different plots, and five plants from each of seven additional plots. Material from 4,137 plants of 229 plots of the 19 varieties was sampled in seven countries. Of 3,654 plants analyzed with the set of nine microsatellites, 3,299 were of the right variety and used for the survey. An average of 172 individual values was studied for each allele of each microsatellite of each variety, and none differences were detected that could not be explained as technical variations, with the exception of several putative chimeras in two varieties. Of the total of 171 variety x microsatellite combinations, only in one combination ('Merlot' x VVMD27) the number of off-types exceeded the threshold allowed. The remaining 170 combinations have been found uniform and stable according to internationally accepted rules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigations were made on the morphological traits of the flowers, shoots and fruits of five apple cultivars in the Batul group and four in the Sóvári Group, in order to prepare UPOV (Union Internationale pour la Protection des Obtentions Végétales) descriptions of these cultivars. Marker analysis involving 12 microsatellite primers was performed to identify 13 genotypes. All the analytical methods indicated that 'Zöld batul' could be clearly distinguished from the other 'Batul' selections, suggesting that it is an independent cultivar distantly related to 'Batul'. Within the Sóvári Group, the cultivars could be clearly distinguished from each other on the basis of morphological and molecular analysis. The variants of'Beregi sóvári' collected in the United Kingdom and in Sub-Carpathia cannot be considered to be the same cultivar. The genotype preserved in the UK National Apple Collection at Brogdale should be considered to be an unknown cultivar. The present examinations demonstrated that a combination of morphological and genetic analyses provides a more reliable identification of apple genotypes than pomological descriptions or genetic analysis alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses how intellectual property rights (IPR) for plants are protected in the U.S. Plant breeders in the U.S. can protect their IPR through plant patents, plant variety protection, and utility patents. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), under the Department of Commerce, is responsible for the administration of patents, copyrights and trademarks.

The article discusses the influence of the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV Convention) on the establishment of effective plant variety protection (PVP) system. The UPOV Convention was established to encourage innovation in plant breeding. The criteria established by the UPOV Convention for the protection of plant variety are distinctness, uniformity and stability (DUS).

The Indian government was obliged to extend private property rights to plant varieties under the World Trade Organisation's Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement. This paper analyses the implications of India's TRIPS-induced Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights (PPVFRs) Act for small producers. The Indian Act gives formal recognition to farmers' rights and upholds the principle of benefit sharing. This notwithstanding, it is argued that it will be very difficult for small farmers to benefit from the legislation since the Act is designed to protect the rights of parties that are able to prove that they are innovators in agriculture. The extension of private property rights to plant varieties will lead to higher seed prices and could lead to further erosion of genetic diversity in the country, negatively impacting farmers. Importantly, the Indian government's decision to accede to the International Union for the Protection of New Plant Varieties Convention (UPOV), coupled with the provisions of the 2004 National Seed Bill, severely compromise the farmers' rights provisions in the PPVFRs Act, putting into question the Indian government's commitment to protecting farmers' rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights of the World Trade Organization imposes an obligation on all member countries to protect plant varieties either by patents or by a sui generis regime or by a combination of both. India explored the sui generis option to provide protection to plant varieties. This legal regime recognizes the rights of commercial breeders and also grants a positive right to farmers and goes beyond the widely recognized international sui generis regime represented by the International Union for the Protection of Plant Varieties (UPOV). Notwithstanding this, India has made an application to join UPOV. However, with the present plant variety law, India's membership application to join UPOV may not be successful. The recent development of bringing the Seeds Bill, which dilutes farmers' rights provisions in the plant variety law, is important in this regard. The article argues that if the Seeds Bill is passed in its present form, it will dilute the beneficial provisions of the plant variety law and pave the way for India to join UPOV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The protection of plant varieties is an aspect of intellectual property rights. In Jordan, while some attention has been paid to traditional rights such as copyright, trademark and patent, until recently, virtually no attention has been paid to intellectual property rights with respect to plant varieties. This article reviews the development of intellectual property rights in Jordan for new plant varieties. This article then examines the Law on Protecting New Varieties of Plants. Particularly, the examination is based on comparison with the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights to determine the extent to which the Jordanian law meets the rules of these international treaties. To conclude, the article finds that while the Law on Protecting New Varieties of Plants is a landmark in the development of intellectual protection in Jordan, there are certain issues that need to be addressed. To help improve the existing protection for new plant varieties, the article suggests certain actions that can be taken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the issues related to intellectual property rights (IPR) in India. The author identifies the agencies and laws that oversee IPR in the country, including Intellectual Property India (IPI) administered by the Patent Office and controlled by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. An attempt to develop working relations between the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Authority/Registry and IPI is also presented.

The paper discusses various conventions/treaties/agreements affecting agriculture innovation systems, and the legal mechanisms existing in India for such innovations. It raises concerns on how the policy environment and governance is affecting the agriculture at large, and agri-based products in particular. It also discusses the role of various agencies including public, private and NGOs in India in protecting vast biodiversity and the measures they need to take to meet the challenges related to issue of P protection related to agriculture in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Economia e Sociologia Rural is the property of Sociedade Brasileira de Economia e Sociologia Rural and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Abstract: The article describes the progress in providing a system of plant variety protection (PVP) in the states of the African Intellectual Property Organization (OAPI). Following a brief introduction to the missions of OAPI, the challenge of creating a system of PVP suited to the situation in the member states is explored. The solution to this challenge, the introduction of a uniform system in accord with UPOV guidelines, was achieved by the agreement, and ratification in 2002, of Annex X of the Bangui Agreement. The practicalities of setting up testing and examination centers, and the determination of the initial 19 genera and species for protection from the start date in 2006 are described. Finally, the potential societal and economic benefits flowing from this form of PVP are summarized. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In reviewing the progress of plant variety protection based on the UPOV Convention, the author briefly describes the original Convention of 1961 and the revisions in 1972, 1978 and 1991. He goes on to examine the results of the substantial increases in membership and in grants of protection. One such result is greater interaction with conventions and treaties such as TRIPS and the Convention on Biodiversity. Issues described in this context include the conservation of and access to genetic resources (GR), disclosure of origin of GR, prior informed consent for the use of GR, benefit sharing and farmers’ rights. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The rationale for, and implementation of, plant variety protection under Union pour la protection des obtentions ve´ge´tales (UPOV) is described. Topics covered include the basic requirements under UPOV (e.g. minimum number of plant genera, minimum period of protection, minimum scope of protection, and the need for distinctiveness, uniformity, stability, novelty and acceptable denomination); the types of materials and plant varieties covered; exceptions to breeders’ rights; national implementation and priority provisions; the relationship between plant variety protection and patent protection; reasons for, and administration of, national protection; implementation of rights; and information dissemination. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Recent advances in genetic engineering nowallow the design of programmable biologicalartifacts. Such programming may include usageconstraints that will alter the balance ofownership and control for biotechnologyproducts. Similar changes have been analyzedin the context of digital content managementsystems, and while this previous work is usefulin analyzing issues related to biologicalprogramming, the latter technology presents new conceptual problems that require morecomprehensive evaluation of the interplaybetween law and technologically embeddedvalues. In particular, the ability to embedcontractual terms in technological artifactsnow requires a re-examination of disclosure andconsent in transactions involving such artifacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need for precise characterisation of crop materials has assumed importance in any established sui generis system for effective protection of plant varieties. Considering this requirement, 37 Indian maize inbreds were analysed for allozyme variations. Seven enzyme systems comprising 16 isozyme loci were analysed using starch gel electrophoresis. The allelic variants were designated using the well-characterised maize inbred Mo 17 as a standard. A total of 29 alleles were scored at the 16-isozyme loci studied. Malate dehydrogenase (Mdh), acid phosphatase (Acp), phosphoglucoisomerase (Pgi), 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (Pad) and isocitrate dehydrogenase (Idh) were the most informative isozyme systems for characterisation of the maize inbreds. These enzyme systems were also useful in detecting and quantifying the extent of `off-types' in each seed lot analysed. The percent off-types (inclusive of the admixtures and segregates) were as high as 47 to 50 percent in seed lots of a few of the inbreds. The results of the study were also useful in studying genetic diversity among the inbreds. An UPGMA based cluster analysis of the allozyme data revealed presence of only moderate genetic diversity among the Indian maize inbreds. This is of significance in crop yield stability as these inbreds have been used extensively in the production of F1 hybrids occupying large area under maize cultivation in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]