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Research shows that sports participation in youth is associated with earnings in adulthood. However, studies have often relied on self-reported earnings and on single indicators of sports participation. Using large-scale data linked to administrative records, we investigate: (a) whether sports attitudes at age 13 are uniquely related to income at ages 30–36 and (b) whether educational attainment and mental health in early adulthood mediate this association. We find that a one SD increase in sports attitudes is related to a 10% increase in income. This association is not entirely confounded by preexisting and co-occurring risk factors. Educational attainment mediates 22% of the association between sports attitudes and income. Sports attitudes are potentially a form of capital deployed in the pursuit of socioeconomic advantages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children's academic achievement is considerably influenced by genetic factors, which rarely operate independently of environmental influences such as teachers' behaviour. Praise and punitive discipline are commonly used management strategies by teachers. However, their effects on the genetic expression of children's academic achievement are still unclear. Aims: This study examined potential gene-environment interactions in the associations between children's estimated genetic disposition for academic achievement and teachers' use of praise and punitive discipline in predicting academic achievement. Sample: The participants were 165 twin pairs in sixth grade (M = 12.1 years). Methods: Teachers reported on children's academic achievement, as well as on their own behaviour. Results: Multilevel regression analyses showed significant interactions between children's estimated genetic disposition for academic achievement and teachers' use of praise and punitive discipline, respectively, in predicting academic achievement. These interactions indicated an enhancement process, suggesting that genetically advantaged children are those most likely to benefit from regular praise and infrequent punishments from their teacher. Moreover, genetically advantaged children were not more (nor less) likely to receive praise or punishments than other students. However, students from underprivileged backgrounds were less likely to receive praise from their teachers. Conclusions: The results emphasize the importance of teachers' regular use of praise and infrequent punitive discipline to help genetically advantaged children reach their full potential. Future studies should investigate other protective factors of the school environment that might reduce the role of genetic influences that undermine disadvantaged youth's academic achievement.

Classroom placement of twins is an ongoing issue for educational policy. Many educational jurisdictions have standard policy most commonly founded in the belief that separation supports individual identity, personal development and academic opportunity. This study examined the effects of classroom placement in a sample of 560 twin pairs whose behaviors were assessed from ages 5 to 12 years. We found no detrimental effect of classroom sharing on twins' social development. In contrast, this study provides evidence that educating twins together is associated with modest positive twins' behaviors and social functioning at school. Implications for educational policies are further discussed.

Socialization among aggressive friends is believed to play a critical role in the development of aggressive behavior. This study examined the moderating effect of norm salience in the classroom on the association between reciprocal friends' and children's own physical, relational, and general aggression. A total of 713 children (M = 10.32 years, SD = 0.99) in grades 4 to 6 completed a peer nomination inventory in the fall and spring of the same academic year. Norm salience was operationalized as the class- and sex-specific correlation between each form of aggression and social preference. Norm salience moderated relational aggression socialization among friends only for highly relationally aggressive girls. Specifically, socialization was exacerbated when norm salience was favorable and attenuated when norm salience was unfavorable, suggesting that highly relationally aggressive girls may possess skills allowing them to adapt to the social context in which they and their friends interact. In contrast, boys' general aggression socialization was exacerbated when norm salience was neutral or unfavorable, suggesting that boys who affiliate with aggressive friends may be more susceptible to aggressive friends' influence in general and especially in the context of potential peer rejection. No moderating effect of norm salience was found in regards to physical aggression socialization. Results suggest that interventions aimed at changing acceptability of aggression in the classroom may only be effective in specific subgroups of aggressive youth.

Given the importance of writing for academic achievement, this study aimed to understand how early oral language contributes to later writing skills. The first objective was to determine if preschool language skills were associated with high school writing, and if so, whether they contributed directly or indirectly through school age language. The second aim was to explore the extent to which genetic and environmental factors explained these potential associations. The sample was drawn from the Quebec Newborn Twin Study, a longitudinal follow-up of twins born in the greater Montreal area, Quebec, Canada. Language skills were assessed when children were 1.5, 2.5, 6, 7, 10, and 12 years old. Writing skills were measured at 15 years old. Participants who completed the writing task in French were included in the study (n = 316 twin pairs: 46% males). Mothers of these participants self-identified mostly as White. About 74% of them had a postsecondary diploma or certificate, and 27% further had a university degree. Most families had an income higher than 30,000 CND. Results indicate that preschool language was modestly associated with high school writing (r = 0.25) and that school age language fully mediated this association. Genes explained 53% of the association between preschool language and school age language and 64% of the association between school age language and high school writing. These results highlight the developmental continuity from oral to written language from preschool to high school and show that genetic factors largely account for this continuity.

Two studies examine the convergence between measures of friendship and measures of liking in the assessment of friendship and peer acceptance. In the first study, 551 (301 boys and 250 girls) Canadian primary school children (ages 8-11) nominated friends and liked-most classmates. In the second study, 282 (127 boys and 155 girls) US primary school children (ages 9-11) nominated friends and rated classmates on a sociometric preference scale. The results revealed considerable convergence in the assessment of friendship. Most first, second, and third ranked friends were also nominated and rated as liked-peers, suggesting that when measures of liking are used to identify friends, few top-ranked friendships are overlooked. There was less convergence in assessments of peer acceptance. Peer acceptance scores derived from friend nominations were more strongly correlated with peer acceptance scores derived from liking nominations than with those derived from sociometric preference ratings. We conclude that liking nominations accurately capture friendships, particularly best friendships. Friend nominations may be a suitable substitute for assessments of liking, but they are a poor substitute for assessments of sociometric preference.

The present study investigated prenatal and early postnatal risk factors associated with developmental patterns of disruptive behaviors (DBs; e.g., hyperactivity-impulsivity, noncompliance, physical aggression) from ages 1.5 to 5 years in a population birth cohort (N = 2,057; 50.7% boys). Six high-trajectory classes obtained by latent growth modeling were used as longitudinal indicators of single-DB and co-occurrent DBs. Children following low or moderate trajectories for all DBs served as the reference class. Results showed low commonality of risk factors among single-DB trajectory classes, suggesting that "pure" forms of DBs have specific etiologies. In contrast, the trajectory classes with a high DB in common shared 20.0% to 46.7% of their risk factors. Overall, 40.0% of significant risk factors across trajectory classes were common to between two and four classes, whereas 60.0% of the significant risk factors were specific to one class or another. However, risk factors common among classes accounted for the greater part (63.2%) of the associations, especially in co-occurrent DBs trajectory classes. These risk factors included male sex, a higher number of siblings, maternal symptoms of depression and conduct problems, young motherhood, lack of positive parenting, family dysfunction, and lower socioeconomic status. Children thus develop early distinct patterns of DBs associated with both common and specific prenatal and early postnatal risk factors. Longitudinal assessments of early manifestations of DB, including a range of behaviors and a variety of potential risk factors to reflect the distinctiveness of children and their families, could help guide etiological research, tailor early interventions, and prevent a cascade of deleterious influences and outcomes.

The goal of the present study was to replicate Burt et al. (2009) and Hou et al. (2013) findings by determining the contribution of peers' deviance to changes in participants' (monozygotic [MZ] twins') self-reported delinquency from mid- to late adolescence while controlling for possible gene-environment correlations (rGE) through the use of the cotwin method in the context of a cross-lagged design. Two separate samples were used to this purpose. The first sample included 289 MZ-twin pairs (48.42% female; 65.5% of European descent, 21.7% of African descent, 12.8% other; average age at first assessment = 16.20 years) and relied on perceived measures of peer deviance, as in the two original studies. The second sample comprised 181 MZ-twin pairs (50.67% female; 84% of European descent, 3% of African descent, 2% of Asian descent, 2% Native North Americans, and 9% unspecified; average age at first assessment = 13.05 years) and used direct measures to assess peers' deviance. Participants in the first sample were part of a large representative sample of American adolescents, whereas the second sample included families with twins born in a large Canadian city. Results showed that within-pair differences in self-reported delinquency were stable from midadolescence to late adolescence in both samples. As in Burt et al. (2009) and Hou et al. (2013) within-pair differences in peer deviance did not predict changes in within-pair differences in self-reported delinquency in both samples (i.e., no socialization effect). In contrast to Burt et al. (2009) and Hou et al. (2013), however, we found no predictive link from twins' self-reported delinquency to peers' deviance (i.e., no selection effect). Finally, as in Burt et al. (2009) we found that peers' deviance was stable from middle to late adolescence and that peers' deviance and participants' delinquency were cross-sectionally correlated in the first sample, but not in the second sample. These results are interpreted in the context of the ongoing debate in regard to peers' socialization vs selection effects.

The present study examined, within a longitudinal family-informed design and across middle childhood, the predictive associations between preference for solitude and social wariness, two forms of social withdrawal, and peer difficulties. Specifically, preference for solitude, rather than social wariness, was expected to predict peer victimization and rejection, two aspects of peer difficulties. A total of 1,014 children from the Quebec Newborn Twin Study were assessed by teachers and peers at ages 6, 7, and 10 years. Multilevel analyses conducted across three levels, between family, within family, and within person, revealed that preference for solitude, rather than social wariness, increased the risk for peer difficulties in terms of both peer victimization and peer rejection. Specifically, preference for solitude was systematically associated with peer rejection starting at age 6 years and became progressively associated with peer victimization over time. This pattern was found both between and within families. In addition, the predictive association with peer rejection was found within genetically identical, monozygotic twin pairs, suggesting that this predictive association existed after taking into account genetic vulnerabilities. Social wariness was systematically unrelated to peer difficulties. These findings suggest that preference for solitude, rather than social wariness, is a risk factor for peer difficulties. They underscore the relevance of distinguishing these dimensions of social withdrawal and illustrate the usefulness of a family-informed design to document the processes underlying childhood social adjustment.

Purpose: The objective of this study was to compare children with persistent versus transient preschool language delay on language, academic, and psychosocial outcomes in elementary school. Method: Children with persistent language delay (n = 30), transient language delay (n = 29), and no language delay (controls; n = 163) were identified from a population-based sample of twins. They were compared on language skills, academic achievement, and psychosocial adjustment in kindergarten and Grades 1, 3, 4, and 6. Results: Children with persistent language delay continued to show language difficulties throughout elementary school. Furthermore, they had academic difficulties, in numeracy, and psychosocial difficulties (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder behaviors, externalizing behaviors, peer difficulties) from Grade 1 to Grade 6. Children with transient language delay did not differ from controls on language and academic performance. However, they showed more externalizing behaviors in kindergarten and peer difficulties in Grade 1 than controls. Conclusion: Difficulties at school age are widespread and enduring in those with persistent early language delay but appear specific to psychosocial adjustment in those with transient language delay.

The present study investigated whether distinct developmental patterns of externalizing behaviors (EBs: hyperactivity–impulsivity, noncompliance, physical aggression) based on parent reports were repeatedly and differentially associated with separate dimensions of internalizing problems such as general anxiety, separation anxiety, and depressive symptoms across the early, middle, and late preschool years in a population birth cohort (N = 2,057, 50.7% boys). Six high trajectory classes obtained by latent growth modeling were used as longitudinal indicators of single EB and co-occurrent EBs. Children following low or moderate trajectories for all EBs served as the reference class. Results revealed that children in trajectory classes reflecting high levels of co-occurring EBs showed higher levels of general anxiety, separation anxiety, and depressive symptoms across the preschool years. In contrast, children in trajectory classes reflecting single EB manifested higher levels of some, but not all, dimensions of internalizing problems. In addition, their scores varied from one period to another. No sex differences were observed in the above associations. These results underline the need for comprehensive assessments across distinct types of EBs and internalizing problems to better reflect the characteristics that distinguish individual children. Finally, results suggest that children showing early co-occurrent EBs and internalizing symptoms may be an important group to target for in-depth assessment and possibly preventive intervention. Public Significance Statement: Children who show a high level of externalizing behaviors (EB: hyperactivity–impulsivity, noncompliance, or physical aggression) from the early to late preschool years—and especially preschoolers with high levels of multiple EBs—also present higher levels of anxiety, separation anxiety, and depressive symptoms. These findings are consistent with a developmental approach to psychopathology and emphasize the importance of early preventive evaluation and potential intervention with these children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to identify joint trajectories of peer cyber and traditional victimization from ages 13 to 17 and individual, family, peer, and school risk factors associated with group membership. The sample was composed of 1,194 adolescents (54.2% girls). Cyber and traditional victimization were assessed at ages 13, 15, and 17. The results first revealed a low/increasing and a high/decreasing trajectories for cybervictimization and a low/decreasing and a moderate/chronic for traditional victimization. Conditional probabilities suggested that cybervictims had a high probability of being victims on school grounds, whereas traditional victims were not necessarily the target of cybervictimization. Four joint trajectory groups were also identified. With the low victimization group as the reference category, the results revealed that different sets of predictors were associated with membership in the three other joint trajectory groups. The results are discussed in relation to intervention and prevention strategies.

Background: The number line task assesses the ability to estimate numerical magnitudes. People vary greatly in this ability, and this variability has been previously associated with mathematical skills. However, the sources of individual differences in number line estimation and its association with mathematics are not fully understood. Aims: This large-scale genetically sensitive study uses a twin design to estimate the magnitude of the effects of genes and environments on: (1) individual variation in number line estimation and (2) the covariation of number line estimation with mathematics. Samples: We used over 3,000 8- to 16-year-old twins from the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Russia, and a sample of 1,456 8- to 18-year-old singleton Russian students. Methods: Twins were assessed on: (1) estimation of numerical magnitudes using a number line task and (2) two mathematics components: fluency and problem-solving. Results: Results suggest that environments largely drive individual differences in number line estimation. Both genes and environments contribute to different extents to the number line estimation and mathematics correlation, depending on the sample and mathematics component. Conclusions: Taken together, the results suggest that in more heterogeneous school settings, environments may be more important in driving variation in number line estimation and its association with mathematics, whereas in more homogeneous school settings, genetic effects drive the covariation between number line estimation and mathematics. These results are discussed in the light of development and educational settings.