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Coprolites have been a source of study for archeologists due to several reasons: they not only provide information on the life and nutritional habits of ancient individuals but also on their health. In this paper, we processed 10 coprolites collected at La Cueva de Los Muertos Chiquitos (600–800 CE), Rio Zape, Mexico, with acetolysis solution for pollen analysis. The number of pollen grains/gram of each coprolite sample was quantified along with the macroscopic remains of these samples. The main food item ingested by the population was maize, followed by Agave. Squash blossoms were also part of their food source determined by the presence of pollen grains. In macroremains, we identified rodent bones, plant seeds, and Agave fibers. The macroscopic analysis of the samples fits with the analysis of smaller remains, giving an idea of the meal represented by each coprolite analyzed. We relate these results to previous microbiome studies of coprolite samples from the same archeological site and provide a discussion on the relevancy of studying macro- and microremains that can be applied to microbiome interpretation analysis.

In parasitology, it has been observed that human populations in highly-populated areas are highly vulnerable to parasite infection. In this regard, the emergence of urbanized societies in history might have caused human parasite infection rates to increase. However, except for a few parasitological reports, the overall pattern of ancient parasitic infection still remains obscure for urbanized society in history. Since corroborative evidence thus far has been too insufficient to posit a relationship between historical urbanization and parasitism, a more detailed picture of the parasitism in urbanized as well as non-urbanized societies needs to be revealed. Recently, we have performed a series of scientific analyses on the specimens obtained from archaeological sites in order to answer these queries. The studies have focused mostly on archaeological specimens obtained from certain urban areas, such as palaces and residences, where pre-modern people from all walks of life once interacted. Using these specimens, we successfully revealed different patterns of ancient parasitism in urban and non-urban areas, thus allowing us to consider whether it actually varied by the degree of urbanization in history.

Straipsnyje siekiama nustatyti, kokia buvo 2014–2015 m. Vilniuje, Valdovų rūmų rytinio korpuso šiauriniame priestate, vykdytų detaliųjų archeologinių tyrimų metu aptikto medinio dviejų patalpų, 5 × 2,7 m dydžio pastato galima panaudojimo paskirtis. Tikslui pasiekti pasitelkti ekofaktinių tyrimų metodai, kurių didžiausia dalis skirta archeobotaninių duomenų analizei. Šioje neabejotinai atvejo studijoje duomenys interpretuojami archeologinių, archeobotaninių, archeoparazitologinių, vabzdžių liekanų tyrimų ir vieno iš mikromorfologijos – sferolitų analizės tyrimų fone. This article presents the research results from a two-compartment building of an unknown function that was discovered during the detailed archaeological investigation of the Royal Palace in the Lower Castle in Vilnius between November 2014 and January 2015. By applying a variety of research methodologies, which include archaeological, archaeobotanical, archaeoparasitological micromorphological (spherulites) and entomological studies, here we propose a possible function of the house.

Russia, both as the USSR and the Russian federation, provided a source of parasitological theory for decades. A key figure in Russian parasitology was Yevgeny Pavlovsky. He developed the nidus concept of Pavlovsky provided the conceptual basis for the field of pathoecology. He also coined the term "Paleoparasitology". Pathoecology is a foundation concept in archaeological parasitology. Paleoparasitology, as defined by Pavlovsky, is an avenue for understanding of host parasite evolution over very long time periods. These contributions are not fully recognized internationally. Similarly, the long history of Russian paleontological and archaeological investigations are not fully known. Most recently, discoveries from archaeological sites show that a pattern of zoonotic infection prevailed among archaeological populations in central Russia. This included a case of apparent host switching of beef tapeworm infection to reindeer. This latter discovery raises the possibility that archaeological parasitology can contribute to the new Stockholm Paradigm of ecological fitting, host switching, and emergent disease. This review covers all of the parasitological discoveries from ancient Russia and illustrates how Russian models and discoveries defined parasitological theory in the past and present.

Archaeoparasitology provides a unique perspective on the health and habits of ancient cultures through the identification of parasite remains in archaeological materials. We identified eggs of the human whipworm, Trichuris trichiura, in coprolites recovered from Late Archaic (1926–1751 cal. BCE) and Ancestral Puebloan (1039–1163 cal. CE) sites in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Our findings represent the earliest record of T. trichiura in North America, the first record of the species from Chaco Canyon, and the first record of a macroparasite from a Late Archaic site (Atlatl Cave) on the Colorado Plateau. T. trichiura is common in the global archaeoparasitology record, but until now it was not known to have infected Ancestral Puebloans. Environmental barriers to transmission and lack of contact with infected Mesoamerican cultures have previously been used to explain the absence of this species from the Southwest. The new evidence of T. trichiura presented here raises questions about the cultural context which led to the arrival and persistence of this parasite in both a Late Archaic cave and an Ancestral Puebloan great house at Chaco Canyon. We propose that the moisture requirements of T. trichiura transmission may have been met through anthropogenic modification of the local environment, and that the presence of this species at Chaco Canyon suggests contact with infected Mesoamerican cultures. We also report the presence of the pinworm, Enterobius vermicularis, and unidentified larval nematodes in the Chaco Canyon archaeological record.

Archaeological parasitology originated in the mid-twentieth century with interdisciplinary teams of specialists directed by archaeologists. The goals of such studies were detailed analyses of dietary, medicinal, and environmental factors that shaped the patterns of infection. By the 1970s, a cadre of unique coprolite analysts was trained to analyze macroscopic and microscopic remains for integrated reconstructions of the cultural determinants of parasitism. During these first phases of research, diagnostic rigor was maintained by direct training of specialists in parasitology and archaeology sub-disciplines including archaeobotany and archaeopalynology. Near the end of the twentieth century, however, "paleoparasitology" was defined as a separate field focusing on defining parasite distribution through time and space. Ironically, this focus resulted in an increase in misdiagnosis, especially prominent after 2000. Paleoparasitology does not explicitly include other specialized studies in it research design. Thus, dietary, environmental and medicinal inferences have been neglected or lost as samples were destroyed solely for the purpose of parasitological analysis. Without ancillary archaeological studies, paleoparasitology runs the risk of separation from archaeological context, thereby reducing its value to the archaeologists who recover samples for analysis.

En dépit des soins méticuleux apportés par les antiques thanatopracteurs égyptiens, de nombreuses momies ont subi les assauts d’insectes déprédateurs. La momie égyptienne du musée Anne-de-Beaujeu, confiée au département Restauration du C2RMF de Versailles pour restauration, n’a pas échappé aux vagues d’arthropodes thanatophages qui se sont préservés jusqu’à nous. Au-delà de cette colonisation post-mortem, les investigations paléoparasitologiques conduites sur cette momie nous révèlent que cette dernière souffrait d’une pédiculose sévère, comme en témoignent les myriades de poux et de lentes découvertes sur les restes de cheveux. Despite the meticulous care bestowed by Ancient Egyptian embalmers, numerous mummies have suffered from attacks by depredatory insects. The Egyptian mummy from the Museum Anne-de-Beaujeu, entrusted for restoration to the C2RMF (Versailles), did not escape the invasions of thanatophagous arthropoda, which have been preserved up till now. Beyond this post-mortem colonization, paleoparasitological investigations conducted on this mummy revealed that the latter suffered from severe pediculosis, as evidenced by the myriads of lice and nits discovered on the remaining hair.

The study of coprolites has been a theme of archaeology in the American Southwest. A feature of archaeoparasitology on the Colorado Plateau is the ubiquity of pinworm infection. As a crowd parasite, this ubiquity signals varying concentrations of populations. Our recent analysis of coprolite deposits from 2 sites revealed the highest prevalence of infection ever recorded for the region. For Salmon Ruins, the deposits date from AD 1140 to 1280. For Aztec Ruins, the samples can be dated by artifact association between AD 1182-1253. Both sites can be placed in the Ancestral Pueblo III occupation (AD 1100-1300), which included a period of cultural stress associated with warfare. Although neither of these sites show evidence of warfare, they are typical of large, defensible towns that survived this time of threat by virtue of large populations in stonewalled villages with easily accessible water. We hypothesize that the concentration of large numbers of people promoted pinworm infection and, therefore, explains the phenomenal levels of infection at these sites.

The aim of this parasitological study is examining contemporary (the late 20th century) specimens of the arctic or subarctic areas in Western Siberia and comparing them with the information acquired from archaeological samples from the same area. In the contemporary specimens, we observed the parasite eggs of 3 different species: Opisthochis felineus, Ascaris lumbricoides, and Enterobius vermicularis. Meanwhile, in archaeoparasitological results of Vesakoyakha, Kikki-Akki, and Nyamboyto I burial grounds, the eggs of Diphyllobothrium and Taenia spp. were found while no nematode (soil-transmitted) eggs were observed in the same samples. In this study, we concluded helminth infection pattern among the arctic and subarctic peoples of Western Siberia throughout history as follows: the raw fish-eating tradition did not undergo radical change in the area at least since the 18th century; and A. lumbricoides or E. vermicularis did not infect the inhabitants of this area before 20th century. With respect to the Western Siberia, we caught glimpse of the parasite infection pattern prevalent therein via investigations on contemporary and archaeoparasitological specimens.

Previous archaeoparasitology research in the eastern United States suggests that parasitic infection was most widespread in urban areas and among communities of lower socioeconomic status, a pattern attributed to poor sanitation, dense populations of humans and animals, and limited medical care access. The present study documents parasitic disease in a rural, wealthy, and highly educated community of northern New England through the analysis of fecal samples collected from a privy once attached to a 1786 house located on the campus of Dartmouth College, New Hampshire. Three solidly formed organic samples dating to the 1830 s–1840 s were recovered from secure contexts during excavations in 2019. The samples were rehydrated in 0.5% trisodium phosphate solution for 72-hours, and were washed through 230 µm, 120 µm, and 25 µm mesh sieves to remove large particulates and trap parasite eggs on the smallest sieve. The trapped material was collected, centrifuged, and examined using light microscopy for signs of parasite eggs. All three samples were positive for both tapeworm (Taenia spp.) and whipworm (Trichuris trichiura) eggs, suggesting that parasitic infection affected the Dartmouth community during the early nineteenth century. These results indicate that despite cold winters inhospitable to most parasite species, relatively good sanitation, accessible medical care, and the low population densities of rural New England, parasite infection was likely a concern even within affluent households. It therefore appears that nineteenth century parasite infection was not limited to low-income households in urban settings, but may also have been an important health concern for Dartmouth community members.

In the present study, quids from La Cueva de los Muertos Chiquitos (CMC) were subjected to ELISA tests for 2 protozoan parasites, Toxoplasma gondii (n=45) and Trypanosoma cruzi (n=43). The people who occupied CMC, the Loma San Gabriel, lived throughout much of present-day Durango and Zacatecas in Mexico. The known pathoecology of these people puts them into at-risk categories for the transmission of T. gondii and T. cruzi. Human antibodies created in response to these 2 parasites can be detected in modern saliva using ELISA kits intended for use with human serum. For these reasons, quids were reconstituted and subjected to ELISA testing. All test wells yielded negative results. These results could be a factor of improper methods because there is no precedence for this work in the existing literature. The results could equally be a simple matter of parasite absence among those people who occupied CMC. A final consideration is the taphonomy of human antibodies and whether or not ELISA is a sufficient method for recovering antibodies from archaeological contexts. An additional ELISA test targeting secretory IgA (sIgA) was conducted to further examine the failure to detect parasite-induced antibodies from quids. Herein, the methods used for quid preparation and ELISA procedures are described so that they can be further developed by future researchers. The results are discussed in light of the potential future of quid analysis.

Archaeoparasitology is a study to acquire data concerning the parasite infection of ancient people through the examination of the specimens obtained in the excavation sites. Although this research has achieved many successes worldwide, there has been few noteworthy reports from South Asia countries. In 2011 to 2016, we thus conducted parasite examinations on Indian archaeological specimens (n = 247) collected at excavation sites of Mature Harappan period (4600–3900 BP) and their contemporary rural Chalcolithic sites. To derive effective strategy of archaeoparasitological works in Indian Subcontinent, our data were analyzed together with previous clinical report on the soil transmitted helminth infection in the Indian Subcontinent. We propose that future paleoparasitological studies in India should be conducted more intensely on ancient specimens from the states of Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal etc.

Archaeoparasitology is increasingly being used as a tool in archaeological research to investigate relationships between past humans, environments, diets and disease. It can be particularly useful in contexts where parasite eggs preserve, but human and faunal remains do not, including in the identification of disease and/or dietary items otherwise absent from the local archaeological record. We analyzed soil samples from the Late Mesolithic layers of the lake island site of Derragh in County Longford, Ireland. All samples were positive for the presence of Diphyllobothrium sp., an intestinal fish tapeworm that infects humans, causing diphyllobothriasis. Though fish are thought to be a staple food in Mesolithic Ireland, evidence for fishing and subsistence from this period is extremely fragmentary. Similarly, there is little available evidence for disease, primarily due to the lack of human remains. This finding represents the earliest known presence of human-derived parasites in Ireland, the earliest known finding of Diphyllobothrium sp. in Europe and the only finding of the tapeworm from hunter-gatherer contexts. It suggests parasitic infections, particularly those resulting from undercooked food, may be more common in ancient hunter-gatherer populations than previously suspected. The presence of these zoonotic parasites at hunter-gatherer sites can provide important insight into local environments, health and disease, and culinary practices. In locations like Mesolithic Ireland, the presence of parasites may assist in the identification of subsistence activities, such as fishing, and specific prey.

Eiderdown has long been an important resource for northern cultures in the past but is overlooked in archaeology. Down, presumed to be from Eider ducks, has only been identified from a handful of high-status burials in Scandinavia. In order to test whether an archaeoentomological indicator for eiderdown production could be established, a survey of insects from two eiderdown productions sites in Iceland was conducted. The results identified over 500 duck fleas Ceratophyllus garei Rothschild and several beetle species from raw eiderdown and processing residue, as well as from pitfall traps placed in the floor of buildings where the down was stored and processed. It is argued that despite the fact that bird fleas parasitic on Eider ducks are not host-specific, their life history and microhabitat requirements, as well as the method employed to collect eiderdown, makes duck fleas a reliable indicator for eiderdown harvesting in archaeology.

Calcified biological objects are occasionally found at archaeological sites and can be challenging to identify. This paper undertakes the differential diagnosis of what we suggest is an Echinococcus granulosus hydatid cyst from an 8000-year-old mortuary site called Shamanka II in the Lake Baikal region of Siberia. Echinococcus is a parasitic tapeworm that needs two hosts to complete its life cycle: herbivores and humans are intermediate hosts, and carnivores such as dogs, wolves, and foxes are definitive hosts. In the intermediate host the Echinococcus egg hatches in the digestive system, penetrates the intestine, and is carried via the bloodstream to an organ, where it settles and turns into an ovoid calcified structure called a hydatid cyst. For this object, identification was based on macroscopic, radiographic, and stable isotope analysis. High-resolution computed tomography scanning was used to visualize the interior structure of the object, which is morphologically consistent with the E. granulosus species (called cystic Echinococcus). Stable isotope analysis of the extracted mineral and protein components of the object narrowed down the range of species from which it could come. The stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of the object's protein, and stable carbon isotope ratio of the mineral, closely match those of the likely human host. Additionally, the d 13 C protein-to-mineral spacing is very low, which fits expectations for a parasitic organism. To our knowledge this is the first isotopic characterization of a hydatid cyst and this method may be useful for future studies. The hydatid cyst most likely came from a probable female adult. Two additional hydatid cysts were found in a young adult female from a contemporaneous mortuary site in the same region, Lokomotiv. This manuscript ends with a brief discussion the importance of domesticated dogs in the disease's occurrence and the health implication of echinococcal infection for these Early Neolithic hunterefisheregatherers.

We report on our most recent archaeoparasitological examination of soil samples from 15th to 19th century Old Seoul City in Korea. The sediments were taken from the area in front of the Joseon Dynasty Jongmyo Shrine, which was situated at the juncture of a private residence, alley, side gutter and stream. The soils exhibited signs of serious parasitic contamination suggesting that the Old Seoul City inhabitants were particularly vulnerable to infection. The numbers of parasite eggs in the Joseon strata differed according to the sector: Trichuris and Ascaris eggs were found in the streambed, alley, and side gutter samples; none were discovered in the samples from the private house. We speculated that people tried to make their houses and workplaces clean, though resigned to unavoidably contaminated streets, alleys, and streams. The results of the present study offer, for the first time, a clear and detailed snapshot of contemporary Old Seoul City inhabitants’ lives.

Of the parasite eggs discovered in ancient samples from Korean archaeological sites, Paragonimus spp. are of particular importance in that they are regarded as one of the most insidious trematode infection sources. Although their infection prevalence decreased rapidly in the early 20th century, archaeoparasitological studies on the species are still required, as historical knowledge of paragonimiasis remains far from comprehensive. Fortunately, we recently were given a chance to examine a medieval Korean mummy in a good state of preservation. Using morphological techniques, we discovered evidence of ectopic paragonimiasis in the sample from the 17th-century female. When the ITS 2 gene was extracted, amplified and sequenced from Paragonimus eggs, it showed 100% homology to the sequences of modern Paragonimus westermani reported from Korea and Japan, forming a cluster distinct from South Asian P. westermani . Our report is the first-ever analysis of ancient Paragonimus DNA from any archaeological field in the world. The ectopic paragonimiasis diagnosis made in this study, especially involving the liver sample, also is the first of its kind in archaeoparasitology.

Ascaris lumbricoides (giant roundworm) and Trichuris trichiura (whipworm) are the most common intestinal parasites found in humans worldwide today and they almost always co-occur. However, we find two distinct patterns in archaeological material. In historical North American and Old World contexts, the association of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura is similar to the modern epidemiological picture. In contrast, the co-occurrence of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura eggs in prehistoric South America is rare. For prehistoric contexts, T. trichiura is the most common parasite found in archaeological material. Recently molecular biology techniques pointed to a subdiagnosis of roundworm infection in pre-Columbian South American populations. This is contrary to the modern epidemiological picture in which A. lumbricoides infection is predominant. This is a paradox, especially when one considers the number of eggs laid by female daily, 200,000 and 20,000 thousand per day, for A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura respectively. By reviewing the records of these parasites, this paradox is presented and explanations for the paradox are explored. Taphonomy, prehistoric behavior patterns and medicinal plant use seem to be most relevant to the explanation of the paradox. Nematophagous fungi is a less likely factor creating the near absence of A. lumbricoides eggs in the prehistoric New World.

Archaeoparasitological analyses of human remains can present interpretative challenges arising from diverse preservation environments. Three archaeoparasitological studies are used to demonstrate the impacts of five major types of taphonomic factors on parasite egg preservation. In the first case, an analysis of a historic Lithuanian mummy revealed infections with Trichuris trichiura and Ascaris lumbricoides and illustrates taphonomic issues unique to mummies. The second case involved the analysis of coprolites collected from medieval burials in Nivelles, Belgium. One burial demonstrated a high concentration of T. trichiura eggs (approximately 1,577,679 total eggs) and A. lumbricoides eggs (approximately 202,350 total eggs). Preservation was affected mostly by water percolation with differential preservation of eggs based on morphological characteristics. The third case is based on material from embalming jars of the Medici family. No parasite eggs were recovered; however, an abundance of mites and dipteran puparia were encountered, suggesting that arthropods may play a larger role in parasite egg preservation than previously supposed. Differential parasite egg preservation is discussed in light of variances in five major types of taphonomic factors: abiotic, contextual, anthropogenic, organismal, and ecological. Accounting for these factors is a vital component in the interpretation of archaeoparasitological data and should be included in future archaeoparasitological reports.

International audience; Coprolites were recovered from three burials near the Grand Place of Nivelles, Belgium. These remains yielded evidence of geohelminth parasitism. The evidence contributes to studies of differential parasite egg preservation related to the taphonomic conditions within the three burials. Using coprolite analysis techniques, parasite egg concentrations were quantified for each burial. Coprolites from the individual in Burial 122 were abnormally large and abundant, indicating an intestinal blockage. Additionally, this individual hosted an extremely high number of parasites evinced by the calculated parasite egg concentrations (Trichuris trichiura = 1,577,679 total eggs; Ascaris lumbricoides = 202,350 total eggs). Statistical analyses revealed a positive and significant correlation between A. lumbricoides egg and T. trichiura egg presence (eggs per gram [epg]: r2 = 0.583; eggs per coprolite [epc]: r2 = 0.71). Burial 122 coprolites show a statistically significant increase in egg concentration from the upper colon to the lower colon. Taking extreme parasitism into consideration, the possible causes of the intestinal blockage are discussed. We propose a synergy of high parasite burden and diet contributed to the intestinal blockage. Superior parasite egg preservation was observed in coprolites from Burial 122 compared to Burials 009 and 119. This is due to a variety of taphonomic factors, including a more limited percolation of fluid through the grave sediment.

Human coprolites, dating from 8500 to 7000 years BP, were collected from the rock-shelter of Boqueirao da Pedra Furada, in Piaui, Brazil. These dates fall within the “Serra Talhada” cultural traditions I and II of the Tradicao Nordeste, a paleohuman culture of northeastern Brazil. Archaeoparasitological analysis of the coprolites revealed whipworm eggs and hookworm eggs. Analysis of Tradicao Nordeste skeletons and hair shows a variety of diseases including dental problems, osteoarthritis, and head louse infestation. Palynological analysis of the coprolites revealed 12 genera that were potentially medicinal. The pollen data were critically analyzed to assess the potentiality that the pollen represented medicinal use. Strong cases could be made that three of the genera, Anacardium , Borreria , and Terminalia , were actually used for medicinal purposes, probably to treat symptoms caused by the intestinal parasites.

Tissue specimens from 283 principally spontaneously (naturally) desiccated human mummies from coastal and low valley sites in northern Chile and southern Peru were tested with a DNA probe directed at a kinetoplast DNA segment of Trypanosoma cruzi . The time interval spanned by the eleven major cultural groups represented in the sample ranged from ≈9,000 years B.P. (7050 B.C.) to approximately the time of the Spanish conquest, ≈450 B.P. (≈1500 A.D.). Forty-one percent of the tissue extracts, amplified by the PCR reacted positively (i.e., hybridized) with the probe. Prevalence patterns demonstrated no statistically significant differences among the individual cultural groups, nor among subgroups compared on the basis of age, sex, or weight of specimen tested. These results suggest that the sylvatic (animal-infected) cycle of Chagas' disease was probably well established at the time that the earliest humans (members of the Chinchorro culture) first peopled this segment of the Andean coast and inadvertently joined the many other mammal species acting as hosts for this parasite.

The excavations of Chiribaya culture sites in the Osmore drainage of southern Peru focused on the recovery of information about prehistoric disease, including parasitism. The archaeologists excavated human, dog, guinea pig, and llama mummies. These mummies were analyzed for internal and external parasites. The results of the analysis and reconstruction of prehistoric life from the excavations allows us to interpret the pathoecology of the Chiribaya culture.

Almost all known human specific parasites have been found in ancient feces. A review of the paleoparasitological helminth and intestinal protozoa findings available in the literature is presented. We also report the new paleoparasitologic findings from the examination performed in samples collected in New and Old World archaeological sites. New finds of ancylostomid, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, Enterobius vermicularis, Trichostrongylus spp., Diphyllobothrium latum, Hymenolepis nana and Acantocephalan eggs are reported. According to the findings, it is probable that A. lumbricoides was originally a human parasite. Human ancylostomids, A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura, found in the New World in pre-Columbian times, have not been introduced into the Americas by land via Beringia. These parasites could not supported the cold climate of the region. Nomadic prehistoric humans that have crossed the Bering Land Bridge from Asia to the Americas in the last glaciation, probably during generations, would have lost these parasites, which life cycles need warm temperatures in the soil to be transmitted from host to host. Alternative routes are discussed for human parasite introduction into the Americas.

Paleoparasitology is the study of parasites found in archaeological material. The development of this field of research began with histological identification of helminth eggs in mummy tissues, analysis of coprolites, and recently through molecular biology. An approach to the history of paleoparasitology is reviewed in this paper, with special reference to the studies of ancient DNA identified in archaeological material.Paleoparasitologia é o estudo de parasitos encontrados em material arqueológico. O desenvolvimento deste campo da pesquisa teve início com a identificação de ovos de helmintos em tecidos mumificados, análise de coprólitos e, recentemente, através da biologia molecular. Neste artigo faz-se uma breve revisão da história da paleoparasitologia com referência especial aos estudos de ADN antigo (ancient DNA) em material arqueológico

This paper reports an approach to the identification of prehistoric parasitic infection, which integrates traditional morphological methods with molecular methods. The approach includes the strengths of each method while mitigating the limitations. Demonstrating the efficacy of this approach, we provide a case study from a 1400 year old desiccated fecal sample from La Cueva de los Muertos Chiquitos, archaeological site, near Rio Zape, Durango, Mexico. Traditionally prepared microscope slides were processed via microscopy and tentative ascarids were identified. Information regarding the parasites' developmental stage was recorded. DNA was then extracted directly from the slide material. From this DNA extract, a small segment of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene variant that is specific to Ascaris , and its phylogenetically close relatives, was targeted for PCR amplification and sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis of the DNA sequence best matched a member of physalopterids, rather than ascarids, with a single exception of a match to Contracaecum spiculigerum . Subsequent extractions, amplifications and sequencing of the original rehydrated coprolite material confirmed these results. The C. spiculigerum sequence represented a phylogenetic anomaly and subsequent analysis determined the sequence was an error in the BLAST database, likely attributable to misidentification of juvenile specimens prior to sequencing and submission. Physaloptera are a difficult genus to identify morphologically and can carry major health burdens. They may be underreported in humans, in part, because of morphological similarities to the more common human parasites belonging to ascarids. We conclude that integrating traditional morphological methods with molecular methods can help resolve this issue, in both contemporary and prehistoric populations.

Pathoecology provides unique frameworks for understanding disease transmission in ancient populations. Analyses of Old and New World archaeological samples contribute empirically to our understanding of parasite infections. Combining archaeological and anthropological data, we gain insights about health, disease, and the way ancient people lived and interacted with each other and with their environments. Here we present Old and New World parasite evidence, emphasizing how such information reflects the different ways ancient populations exploited diverse environments and became infected with zoonotic parasites. It is clear that the most common intestinal helminths (worm endoparasites) were already infecting ancient inhabitants of the New World prior to the European conquest, although not so intensely as in ancient Europe. The first paleoepidemiological transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture did not change the zoonotic infection pattern of people in the Americas. However, the same transition in Europe resulted in increased zoonotic parasitism with parasites from domestic animals. Therefore, there is a demonstrable difference in the impact of the first paleoepidemiologic transition in the Americas compared to Europe. © 2013 Elsevier Inc. Fil: Reinhard, K. J.. University of Nebraska; Estados Unidos Fil: Ferreira, L. F.. Fundación Oswaldo Cruz; Brasil Fil: Bouchet, F.. Université de Reims; Francia Fil: Sianto, L.. Fundación Oswaldo Cruz; Brasil Fil: Dutra, J. M. F.. Fundación Oswaldo Cruz; Brasil Fil: Iniguez, A.. Fundación Oswaldo Cruz; Brasil Fil: Leles, D.. Universidade Federal Fluminense; Brasil Fil: Le Bailly, M.. Universite de Franche-Comte; Francia Fil: Fugassa, Martín Horacio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata; Argentina Fil: Pucu, E.. Fundación Oswaldo Cruz; Brasil Fil: Araújo, A.. Fundación Oswaldo Cruz; Brasil

Straipsnis skirtas per keletą pastarųjų tyrimų metų sukauptiems naujiems archeologinių ir parazitologijų tyrimų duomenims apibendrinti. Tekste analizuojamos Vilniaus pilių gyventojų gyvenimo sąlygos, jų mitybos ir tuštinimosi įpročiai, kasdienė higiena, aplinkos užterštumas parazitais bei su tuo susijusios problemos. Aptariama endoparazitų ir ektoparazitų viduramžių kultūriniuose sluoksniuose identifikavimo galimybės, sukauptų duomenų interpretavimo subtilumai, šių tyrimų rezultatų svarba ir perspektyvos. Article is devoted to summarising the new archaeological andparasitological research data accumulated during the last several years oj research, lite text analyses the living conditions of the inhabitants of the castles in Vilnius, their nutrition and defecation habits, everyday hygiene, the contamination of the environment with parasites, and related problems. It discusses the possibility of identifying endoparasites and ectoparasites in Medieval cultural layers, the subtleties of interpreting the accumulated data, and the importance and perspectives of the results of this research.

In order to improve paleoparasitological analyses, we tested different acid (hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids) and base (sodium hydroxide) combinations for parasite egg extraction in archaeological sediments. We used a method of egg counting to compare these results to those obtained with the standard paleo-parasitological RHM extraction protocol (rehydration-homogenization-micro-sieving). Tests show that the use of hydrochloric acid results in a concentration of some taxa like Ascaris sp. or Trichuris sp. and an appreciable decrease in vegetal and mineral remains. However, tests also show that acid use systematically decreases parasite species identified, as compared to the standard RHM protocol. Base use yielded even more negative results with systematically lower biodiversity than with the standard protocol, probably due to chemical processes on chitin contained in the eggshell. These results suggest acids and sodium hydroxide should be used as little as possible during extraction due to the damages they cause to the eggs of some parasite species. The counting method was an efficient technique with which to demonstrate our results and could be used in future paleoparasitology studies.

Diphyllobothrium pacificum has been reported as a human parasite from coprolites and skeletons in Peru and Chile. Our analysis of Chinchorro mummies from Chile provides the oldest evidence of D. pacificum directly associated with human mummies. These mummies date between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. The basis for our diagnosis is presented. We find that the size of the eggs in the mummies is smaller than other discoveries of D. pacificum. We suggest that this is due to the peculiar circumstances of preservation of parasite eggs within mummies and the release of immature eggs into the intestinal tract as the tapeworms decompose after the death of the host. This information is important to consider when making diagnoses from mummies.

Parasitological studies of archaeological sites can be used to interpret past behavior and living conditions. During the 1980s problem-oriented research into prehistoric- and historical-period parasitism developed and resulted in the field of archaeoparasitology. Archaeoparasitology attempts to integrate parasite data into archaeological theory and interpretation. Within the last decade, four major archaeoparasitological laboratories emerged. They developed interpretive frameworks that apply parasitological data to a remarkable variety of prehistoric behaviors. Parasite remains can be used to reconstruct aspects of diet, health, and other behaviors such as transhumance and trade. Finally, analysis of the distribution of parasite remains can be used to interpret aspects of site-formation processes.