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Research question: Interest in women's team sports has increased over time. However, there is still little research comparing competitive balance between genders in the bigger sports leagues. Against this background the main research question is whether there are systematic differences in competitive balance between the genders among the bigger sports leagues. Research methods: The analysis involves football (soccer), handball and basketball leagues for the period 2007/08–2016/17 (14 leagues and 135 observations) and is based on quantitative methods. Competitive balance is a multidimensional concept, and this paper separately measures win dispersion, performance persistence and prize (here: championship winner) concentration. Results and findings: In football (soccer), win dispersion is strongly significantly weaker for women's leagues compared to their respective men's leagues, while the results for the other dimensions are mixed. Generally, the level of competitive balance seems weak in women's football (soccer) and in handball. For the latter, there is little difference in competitive balance between the genders. In basketball, the strong significant results for performance persistence suggest that the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) is more balanced than the NBA. Implications: The level of competitive balance in women's football in Europe looks weak, also compared to the women's football in North America. If this leads to competitive balance problems (i.e. lower attendance, ceteris paribus) among women's football in Europe, governing bodies should consider traditional regulations to promote equalization of sporting quality and/or to adjust the framework of the game to better fit women's physiques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eye movements that are dependent on cognition hold promise in assessing sports-related concussions but research on reliability of eye tracking measurements in athletic cohorts is very limited. This observational test–retest study aimed to establish whether eye tracking technology is a reliable tool for assessing sports-related concussions in youth and adult athletes partaking in contact and collision team sports. Forty-three youth (15.4 ± 2.2 years) and 27 adult (22.2 ± 2.9 years) Rugby Union and soccer players completed the study. Eye movements were recorded using SMIRED250mobile while participants completed a test battery twice, with a 1-week interval that included self-paced saccade (SPS), fixation stability, memory-guided sequence (MGS), smooth pursuit (SP), and antisaccades (AS) tasks. Intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC), measurement error (SEM) and smallest real difference (SRD) were calculated for 47 variables. Seventeen variables achieved an ICC > 0.50. In the adults, saccade count in SPS had good reliability (ICC = 0.86, SRD = 146.6 saccades). In the youth, the average blink duration in MGS had excellent reliability (ICC = 0.99, SRD = 59.4 ms); directional errors in AS tasks and gain of diagonal SP had good reliability (ICC = 0.78 and 0.77, SRD = 25.3 and 395.1%, respectively). Four metrics were found in this study to be reliable candidates for further biomarker validity research in contact and collision sport cohorts. Many variables failed to present a sufficient level of robustness for a practical diagnostic tool; possibly, because athletic cohorts have higher homogeneity, along with latent adverse effects of undetected concussions and repetitive head impacts. Since reliability of a measure can influence type II error, effect sizes, and confidence intervals, it is strongly advocated to conduct dedicated reliability evaluations prior to any validity studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Facilitating players' skill acquisition is a major challenge within sport coaches' work which should be supported by evidence-based recommendations outlining the most effective practice and coaching methods. This systematic review aimed at accumulating empirical knowledge on the influence of practice design and coaching behavior on perceptual-motor and perceptual-cognitive skill acquisition in soccer. A systematic search was carried out according to the PRISMA guidelines across the databases SPORTDiscus, PsycInfo, MEDLINE, and Web of Science to identify soccer-specific intervention studies conducted in applied experimental settings (search date: 22nd November 2020). The systematic search yielded 8,295 distinct hits which underwent an independent screening process. Finally, 34 eligible articles, comprising of 35 individual studies, were identified and reviewed regarding their theoretical frameworks, methodological approaches and quality, as well as the interventions' effectiveness. These studies were classified into the following two groups: Eighteen studies investigated the theory-driven instructional approaches Differential Learning, Teaching Games for Understanding, and Non-linear Pedagogy. Another seventeen studies, most of them not grounded within a theoretical framework, examined specific aspects of practice task design or coaches' instructions. The Downs and Black checklist and the Template for Intervention Description and Replication were applied to assess the quality in reporting, risk of bias, and the quality of interventions' description. Based on these assessments, the included research was of moderate quality, however, with large differences across individual studies. The quantitative synthesis of results revealed empirical support for the effectiveness of coaching methodologies aiming at encouraging players' self-exploration within representative scenarios to promote technical and tactical skills. Nevertheless, “traditional” repetition-based approaches also achieved improvements with respect to players' technical outcomes, yet, their impact on match-play performance remains widely unexplored. In the light of the large methodological heterogeneity of the included studies (e.g., outcomes or control groups' practice activities), the presented results need to be interpreted by taking the respective intervention characteristics into account. Overall, the current evidence needs to be extended by theory-driven, high-quality studies within controlled experimental designs to allow more consolidated and evidence-based recommendations for coaches' work.

We applied social networks analysis to objectively discriminate and describe interpersonal interaction dynamics of players across different top-coaching styles. The aim was to compare metrics in the passing networks of Jürgen Klopp, Pep Guardiola, and Mauricio Pochettino across the UEFA Champions League seasons from 2017 to 2020. Data on completed passes from 92 games were gathered and average passing networks metrics were computed. We were not only able to find the foundations on which these elite coaches build the passing dynamics in their respective teams, but also to determine important differences that represent their particular coaching signatures. The local cluster coefficient was the only metric not significantly different between coaches. Still, we found higher average shortest-path length for Guardiola's network (mean ± std = 3.00 ± 0.45 a.u.) compared to Klopp's (2.80 ± 0.52 a.u., p = 0.04) and Pochettino's (2.70 ± 0.39 a.u., p = 0.01). Density was higher for Guardiola's (64.16 ± 20.27 a.u.) than for Pochettino's team (51.42 ± 17.28 a.u., p = 0.008). The largest eigenvalue for Guardiola's team (65.95 ± 16.79 a.u.) was higher than for Klopp's (47.06 ± 17.25 a.u., p < 0.001) and Pochettino's (42,62 ± 12.01 a.u., p < 0.001). Centrality dispersion was also higher for Guardiola (0.14 ± 0.02 a.u.) when compared to Klopp (0.12 ± 0.03 a.u., p = 0.008). The local cluster coefficient seems to build the foundation for passing work, however, cohesion characteristics among players in the three teams of the top coaches seems to characterize their own footprint regarding passing dynamics. Guardiola stands out by the high number of passes and the enhanced connection of the most important players in the network. Klopp and Pochettino showed important similarities, which are associated to preferences toward more flexibility of interpersonal linkages synergies.

Superstitions are behaviors human beings use to gain a sense of control over certain events in their lives. Thus, sport and its inherent uncertainty provide fertile ground for superstitious behavior. Research on this subject has focused mainly on athletes while examining the behavioral expressions, motivations, and characteristics of fans’ superstitions that have remained marginal; therefore, the present paper aims to address this lacuna by analyzing these behaviors as part of sports fandom and fans’ daily routines. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 24 Israeli football fans of local teams. Key findings illustrate two themes: time dependent acts of superstition; and place. It is argued that superstitious behavior serves fans in two ways. First, making them feel their actions influence the match outcomes and helping their favorite team beyond simply cheering in the stands. Second, reducing the level of uncertainty and subsequent stress level characteristic of being a sports fan. Furthermore, following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic when fans’ access to stadiums was restricted, the results show that the fans’ absence from the stadiums led to a reduction in the quantity and frequency of their superstitious behaviors, pointing to the significance of sporting venues in fan behavior.

A widely accepted notion of football matches in performance analysis (PA) is to consider them as dynamic interaction processes with emerging behaviors. The description and analysis of these processes requires specific methods. Recurrence analysis is a technique for analyzing complex systems in many domains like astrophysics, earth sciences, engineering, biology, cardiology, and neuroscience. Its general concept is to examine the recurrence behavior of a system, as in when, how often and how close its trajectory in a phase space returns to a previous state. The aim of the study is to apply recurrence analysis to football matches. Positional data from 21 football matches of a German Bundesliga team were examined. The phase space was made up of the field players' x,y-positions at each second of the match. For each pair of seconds, the average distance of all the players between their positions at these two time points was calculated. Recurrence plots (RPs) were obtained by color-coding these distances. With a recurrence threshold of rt = 9 m and a minimum line length of lmin = 3 s, general recurrence parameters were calculated to characterize the individual recurrence behaviors of each match. Three football-specific recurrence parameters were defined to represent recurrence properties of open play. RPs showed commonalities (typical features indicating set plays and continuous gameplay) as well as unique structures during each match (number, distribution, and sequence of typical features). The recurrence parameters showed several significant correlations with traditional performance indicators like number of goals and passes completed, e.g., the correlation between number of goals and recurrence rate is r = −0.622 (p = 0.003). By extending the sample and design of recurrence studies, there is great potential for recurrence analysis to improve both the practical and theoretical potential of performance analysis.

In addition to inertial discs selected and the characteristics of the flywheel device used, the movement velocity, which is primary depended of the participants' strength and physical characteristics, are key determinant of both concentric and eccentric outputs (e.g., power) of a flywheel exercise ([20]; [23]). Lastly, the majority of available flywheel devices use rotary encoders incorporated into flywheel devices to determine concentric and eccentric power outputs, but users should take into account that some of these encoders may not be sufficiently accurate to assess performance variables and therefore their reliability should be evaluated before their use ([10]; [43]). This study reports that both inertia-power and inertia-velocity relationships can be used to design the profile of a given flywheel exercise, which can be used for assessing training adaptations and progress. For such a reason, practitioners generally determine the inertia-power profile of a given flywheel exercise, which allows the selection of the optimal inertia load for the subject (e.g., power output maximization) ([11]; [23]; [31]; [44]); and it can be used as a feasible and reliable method for assessing training adaptations and progress ([30]). [Extracted from the article]

A widely accepted notion of football matches in performance analysis (PA) is to consider them as dynamic interaction processes with emerging behaviors. The description and analysis of these processes requires specific methods. Recurrence analysis is a technique for analyzing complex systems in many domains like astrophysics, earth sciences, engineering, biology, cardiology, and neuroscience. Its general concept is to examine the recurrence behavior of a system, as in when, how often and how close its trajectory in a phase space returns to a previous state. The aim of the study is to apply recurrence analysis to football matches. Positional data from 21 football matches of a German Bundesliga team were examined. The phase space was made up of the field players' x,y-positions at each second of the match. For each pair of seconds, the average distance of all the players between their positions at these two time points was calculated. Recurrence plots (RPs) were obtained by color-coding these distances. With a recurrence threshold of rt = 9 m and a minimum line length of lmin = 3 s, general recurrence parameters were calculated to characterize the individual recurrence behaviors of each match. Three football-specific recurrence parameters were defined to represent recurrence properties of open play. RPs showed commonalities (typical features indicating set plays and continuous gameplay) as well as unique structures during each match (number, distribution, and sequence of typical features). The recurrence parameters showed several significant correlations with traditional performance indicators like number of goals and passes completed, e.g., the correlation between number of goals and recurrence rate is r = −0.622 (p = 0.003). By extending the sample and design of recurrence studies, there is great potential for recurrence analysis to improve both the practical and theoretical potential of performance analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Cultura, Ciencia y Deporte is the property of Cultura, Ciencia y Deporte and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Detecting counterpressing is an important task for any professional match-analyst in football (soccer), but is being done exclusively manually by observing video footage. The purpose of this paper is not only to automatically identify this strategy, but also to derive metrics that support coaches with the analysis of transition situations. Additionally, we want to infer objective influence factors for its success and assess the validity of peer-created rules of thumb established in by practitioners. Based on a combination of positional and event data we detect counterpressing situations as a supervised machine learning task. Together, with professional match-analysis experts we discussed and consolidated a consistent definition, extracted 134 features and manually labeled more than 20, 000 defensive transition situations from 97 professional football matches. The extreme gradient boosting model—with an area under the curve of 87.4 % on the labeled test data—enabled us to judge how quickly teams can win the ball back with counterpressing strategies, how many shots they create or allow immediately afterwards and to determine what the most important success drivers are. We applied this automatic detection on all matches from six full seasons of the German Bundesliga and quantified the defensive and offensive consequences when applying counterpressing for each team. Automating the task saves analysts a tremendous amount of time, standardizes the otherwise subjective task, and allows to identify trends within larger data-sets. We present an effective way of how the detection and the lessons learned from this investigation are integrated effectively into common match-analysis processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The average professional soccer team experiences 1 to 2 traumatic leg fractures per season, with unknown effects on player performance. Purpose: To (1) determine the rate and time to return to play (RTP) following leg fracture, (2) investigate the rate of reinjury following RTP, and (3) investigate long-term effects that lower extremity (LE) fracture may have on elite soccer player performance. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Using publicly available records, we identified athletes sustaining a traumatic leg fracture across the 5 major European soccer leagues (English Premier League, Bundesliga, La Liga, Ligue 1, and Serie A) between 2000 and 2016. Athletes with leg fracture (femur, tibia, and/or fibula) were matched 1:2 to controls by demographic characteristics and performance metrics 1 season before the index timepoint. Investigations included the RTP rate, reinjury rate, player characteristics associated with RTP within 2 seasons, long-term player retention, performance metrics during the 4 following seasons, and subgroup analysis by player position. Results: A total of 112 players with LE fracture and 224 controls were identified. Players with LE fractures were absent for a mean of 157 days (range, 24-601 days) and 21 games (range, 2-68 games). The rate of RTP within 1 season was 80%, with 4% experiencing subsequent refracture. Injured players remained active in the league at a higher rate than their uninjured counterparts. As compared with controls, injured athletes played 309 fewer total minutes (P <.05), scored 0.09 more assists per game (P <.01) 1 season after injury, and scored 0.12 more points per game 4 seasons after injury (P <.01). Defenders were most affected by an LE fracture, playing 5.24 fewer games (P <.05), 603 fewer total minutes (P <.01), and recording 0.19 more assists per 90 minutes of play as compared with controls 1 season after injury (P <.001). Attackers and midfielders demonstrated no significant difference in metrics after RTP when compared with controls. Conclusion: Most players sustaining an LE fracture returned to elite soccer at the same level after a significant loss of playing time, with a 4% rate of refracture. Player retention was higher for those sustaining an LE fracture versus uninjured controls. Overall, injured players did not experience a decline in performance after recovery from an LE fracture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The effects of adductor muscle injury on performance in soccer athletes are unknown. Purpose: To (1) determine the rate and time to return to play (RTP) after adductor muscle injury, (2) investigate the rate of reinjury after RTP, and (3) investigate any long-term effects of injury on elite soccer player performance. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Using publicly available records, athletes sustaining adductor muscle injury were identified across the 5 major European soccer leagues (English Premier League, Bundesliga, La Liga, Ligue 1, and Serie A) between 2000 and 2015. Injured athletes were matched to controls by demographic characteristics and performance metrics from 1 season before the index timepoint. Investigations included the rate of RTP, reinjuries, player characteristics associated with RTP within 2 seasons, player availability, field time, and performance metrics during the 4 seasons after injury. Results: A total of 671 players with adductor muscle injury were included. Based on time to RTP, 86% of injuries were mild to moderate (4-28 days missed), and 4% required surgical intervention. Players with adductor muscle injury were absent for a median of 22 days (range, 1-700 days) and 4 games (range, 1-76 games). A total of 521 (78%) players returned at the same level, with no demographic or clinical characteristics associated with RTP on the multivariable regression. Of those returning to play, 143 (21%) experienced adductor reinjury. After RTP, defenders demonstrated decreased field time compared with controls (P <.05). As compared with controls, defenders and midfielders scored more points and goals per game during the season of the injury (P <.01), while attackers recorded more goals and assists per game the season after injury (P <.05). Conclusion: Only 3 in 4 players (78%) returned to participate in an official match, and the reinjury rate was high (21%). After RTP, defenders demonstrated decreased field time versus controls. On the other hand, defenders and midfielders recorded more points and goals per game, while attackers recorded more goals and assists per game versus controls. Although the multivariable analysis results did not identify player characteristics associated with RTP, there was a position-dependent association on player performance after RTP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injections are extremely popular in the management of sports injuries in elite athletes. However, data on the use of various administration protocols of PRP are contradictory. The efficacy of platelet-rich plasma in the treatment of muscle injuries in professional soccer players has to be contextualized within the sport-specific rehabilitation program. Despite the questionable role of PRP, a well-structured rehabilitation program is still regarded as the gold standard. We examined the efficacy of various PRP protocols in the management of muscle injuries in professional soccer players in respect to treatment duration and injury recurrence. A retrospective cohort study. Muscle injuries in professional soccer players (n = 79, height 182.1 ± 5.9 cm, weight 76.8 ± 5.8 kg, BMI 23.1 ± 1.4 kg/m2) from three elite soccer clubs from the Russian Premier League were recorded during the 2018–2019 season. The injuries were graded based on MRI, using the British Athletic Muscle Injury Classification. Treatment protocols included the POLICE regimen, short courses of NSAID administration, and the specific rehabilitation program. The sample group of players were administered PRP injections. The average treatment duration with PRP injection was significantly longer than conventional treatment without PRP, 21.5 ± 15.7 days and 15.3 ± 11.1 days, respectively (p = 0.003). Soccer-specific rehabilitation and obtaining MRI/US before the treatment was associated with significantly reduced injury recurrence rate (p < 0.001). There was no significant difference between the PRP injection protocol applied to any muscle and the treatment duration in respect of grade 2A–2B muscle injuries. The total duration of treatment of type 2A–2B injuries was 15 days among all players. In the group receiving local injections of PRP, the total duration of treatment was 18 days; in the group without PRP injections, the treatment duration was 14 days. In our study, PRP treatment was associated with longer treatment duration, regardless of which muscle was injured. This may reflect the tendency to use PRP in higher-degree injuries. Soccer-specific rehabilitation significantly reduced the injury recurrence rate when compared to the administration of PRP injections. MRI/US imaging before returning to play was also associated with a lower injury recurrence rate. There was no significant difference between the PRP injection protocol applied to any muscle and the treatment duration in treatment of type 2A–2B muscle injuries.

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of two different post-match training interventions on the subsequent recovery of perceptual and biochemical parameters after the game. In a crossover design, eight sub-elite players underwent a soccer-specific training (SST) and an active recovery (AR) regimen on the second day after a match (+48 h). Muscle soreness as well as muscle damage (creatine kinase, CK), inflammatory (C-reactive protein and interleukin 6), immunological (e.g., lymphocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes), and endocrine (cortisol) markers were obtained at baseline (−72 h), immediately after (0 h), and 72 h post-match (+72 h). AR promoted a higher restoration of muscle soreness values (P = 0.004, η2p = 0.49) together with a better restoration of CK within 72 h post-match compared with SST (P = 0.04, η2p = 0.36). Conversely, no significant (P > 0.05, η2p < 0.91) differences were observed in the recovery timeframe of inflammatory, immunological, and endocrine responses between SST and AR. Overall, AR elicited a quicker muscle soreness and CK restoration compared to SST intervention at 72 h post-match. Such information provides novel evidence-based findings on the appropriateness of different recovery strategies and may aid to improve the practitioners’ decision-making process when two consecutive games are played within 3 days.

Background: The acute effects of exercise on anterior knee laxity (AKL) and anterior knee stiffness (AKS) have been documented in healthy participants, but only limited evidence has been provided for athletes cleared to return to sports after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction (ACLR). Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose was to determine if 45 minutes of a soccer match simulation lead to acute changes in AKL and AKS in soccer players returning to sport within 12 months after ACLR. We hypothesized that the reconstructed knee of the ACLR group would exhibit an altered response to sport-specific exercise. Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: A total of 13 soccer players cleared to return to sport after ACLR and 13 healthy control soccer players matched for age, physical activity level, limb dominance, and anthropometric characteristics were recruited. To assess the effects of a standardized soccer match simulation (Soccer Aerobic Field Test [SAFT45]) on AKL and AKS, an arthrometric evaluation was carried out bilaterally before and immediately after SAFT45. To conduct a comprehensive examination of the force-displacement curve, the absolute and side-to-side difference (SSD) values of both AKL and AKS were extracted at 67, 134, and 200 N. Results: The ACLR and control groups showed similar AKL and AKS at baseline (P >.05). In response to SAFT45, laxity increased bilaterally at all force levels by 14% to 17% only in the control group (P <.025). Similarly, AKS at 134 and 200 N decreased in response to SAFT45 only in the control group (10.5% and 20.5%, respectively; P <.025). After SAFT45, the ACLR group had 1.9 and 2.5 times higher SSDs of AKS at 67 and 134 N compared with the control group, respectively (P <.025), as well as a 1.9 times higher SSD of AKS at 134 N compared with baseline (P =.014). Conclusion: Soccer players at the time of return to sport after ACLR showed an altered mechanical response to a sport-specific match simulation consisting of bilaterally unchanged AKL and AKS. Clinical Relevance: Soccer players showing altered AKL and AKS in response to exercise after ACLR may not be ready to sustain their preinjury levels of sport, thus potentially increasing the risk of second ACL injuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the launch and evolution of Liga MX Femenil in Mexico. Indicators pertaining to two dimensions of the game, on-field actors and off-field organization-administrative structures, help to analyze the degree of women's participation in the formation and growth of the league as well as its evolutionary perspectives. The main objective is to identify the factors that have influenced the effective advancement of women's professional football in Mexico. The analysis is mainly based on documentary evidence. It is concluded that rather than the governing body, Federación Mexicana de Fútbol, designing specific policies for women, a combination of non-football women's advancement within the broader Mexican society, international influence, and changes in sensemaking may explain the growing participation of women that led to the launch of LMXF. Based on the findings, four scenarios of evolution are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y el Deporte is the property of Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y el Deporte and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of two different post-match training interventions on the subsequent recovery of perceptual and biochemical parameters after the game. In a crossover design, eight sub-elite players underwent a soccer-specific training (SST) and an active recovery (AR) regimen on the second day after a match (+48 h). Muscle soreness as well as muscle damage (creatine kinase, CK), inflammatory (C-reactive protein and interleukin 6), immunological (e.g., lymphocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes), and endocrine (cortisol) markers were obtained at baseline (−72 h), immediately after (0 h), and 72 h post-match (+72 h). AR promoted a higher restoration of muscle soreness values (P = 0.004, η2 p = 0.49) together with a better restoration of CK within 72 h post-match compared with SST (P = 0.04, η2 p = 0.36). Conversely, no significant (P > 0.05, η2 p < 0.91) differences were observed in the recovery timeframe of inflammatory, immunological, and endocrine responses between SST and AR. Overall, AR elicited a quicker muscle soreness and CK restoration compared to SST intervention at 72 h post-match. Such information provides novel evidence-based findings on the appropriateness of different recovery strategies and may aid to improve the practitioners' decision-making process when two consecutive games are played within 3 days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To determine the effects of recreational football combined with caloric control on glycemia and cardiovascular health of adolescent boys with type 1 diabetes. Background: Though 12 weeks of physical activity alone improves the health of people with type 1 diabetes, there is little evidence that physical activity alone can improve glycemia in 12 weeks. Research Design and Methods: The participants were divided into four groups as follows: football with diet, football‐only, diet‐only, and the control groups. Each group consisted of 10 participants. The football with diet and the football‐only groups had 1.5 h of football twice a week for 12 weeks. The following outcomes were measured before and after 12 weeks: Glycated hemoglobin, fasting blood glucose, total cholesterol, high‐density lipoprotein, low‐density lipoprotein, triglycerides, and resting blood pressures. Changes were considered significant when p ≤ 0.050 and common language effect size ≤42% or common language effect size ≥58%. Results: Glycated hemoglobin decreased in the football with diet group (mean change (standard deviation) = −0.9 (1.0) %, p = 0.019, and common language effect size = 31.5%) and was different from the control group (p = 2.4 × 10−4 and common language effect size = 95.5%.). However, none of the intervention groups showed a clear change in blood lipids nor blood pressure. Conclusions: 12 weeks of combined football with diet intervention provides the greatest improvement in glycemia in adolescent boys with type 1 diabetes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Repetitive head impacts in soccer have been linked to short-term neurophysiological deficits, and female soccer players have higher concussion rates than males. These findings have inspired investigation into gender differences in head impact exposure and how head impact rate contributes to the cumulative effect of head impact exposure on neurological outcomes. Various periods of exposure have been used to calculate head impact rates, including head impacts per season, game, and player-hour. Purpose: The aim of this study was to apply different methodological approaches to quantify and compare head impact rates by gender for two seasons of high school varsity soccer. Methods: Video review was used to confirm all events recorded by a headband-mounted impact sensor and calculate playing time for all players. Impact rates were calculated per athlete exposure (presence and participation) and per player-hour (scheduled game time, individual play time, and absolute time). Results: Impact rates per athlete exposure ranged from 2.5 to 3.2 for males and from 1.4 to 1.6 for females, and impact rates per player-hour ranged from 2.7 to 3.8 for males and from 1.0 to 1.6 for females. The exposure calculation method significantly affected head impact rates; however, regardless of approach, the head impact rate for males was higher, up to threefold, than for females. Individual head impact exposure varied substantially within a team with one in five players experiencing no impacts. Conclusions: Overall, the gender differences found in this study indicate that males experience higher head impact exposure compared with females. Future studies are needed to understand potential clinical implications of variability in head impact exposure and reconcile higher female concussion rates with the reduced head impact rates presented herein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This systematic review with meta-analysis (SRMA) was conducted to compare the effects of SSG-based interventions vs. running-based HIIT interventions on soccer players' sprinting time (ST), vertical height jump (VJH), and change of direction time (CODt).Data Sources: The data sources utilized were Web of Science, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and PubMed.Results: An electronic search yielded 650 articles, six of which were included in the present study. Between-group analysis found a significant favoring effect of HIIT-based over SSG-based training interventions for the improvement of linear sprinting time (ES = 0.42; p = 0.012). A within-group analysis revealed a significant favoring effect of HIIT-based training interventions for improving linear sprinting time (ES = 0.42; p = 0.008) and CODt (ES = 1.04; p = 0.005) despite a non-significant effect on VJH (ES = 0.47; p = 0.22).Conclusions: The meta-analytical comparison revealed favoring the effect of running-based HIIT over SSG-based interventions in sprinting performance, although no significant differences were observed for jumping and CODt performance. The findings suggest that SSG-based programs should be supplemented by other training methods that benefit determinant capacities in soccer players.

The purposes of this study were (1) to analyze between-session variations of external and internal load measures during small-sided games (SSGs) and (2) to test the relationships between the maximum speed reached (VIFT) during the last stage of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test, hemoglobin levels, and training load measures during SSG intervals among professional soccer players. Sixteen professional soccer players (mean ± SD; age 27.2 ± 3.4 years, height 174.2 ± 3.6 cm, body mass 69.1 ± 6.4 kg, and body fat 10.4 ± 4.1%) participated in this study. Hemoglobin and aerobic performance were first tested, and then a 3-week SSG program was applied using a 3 vs. 3 format. During those 3 weeks, internal and external load of entire sessions were also monitored for all training sessions. Trivial-to-small, standardized differences were observed between sessions for external and internal measures during SSGs. Total distance (TD) and mechanical work (MW) were the only variables that indicated small changes. Large-to-very-large relationships were found between VIFT and external loads: TD (r range: 0.69; 0.87), high-intensity running (HIR; r range: 0.66; 0.75), and MW (r range: 0.56; 0.68). Moderate-to-large negative relationships were found between hemoglobin levels and internal loads: Edwards’ TRIMP (r range: −0.36; −0.63), %HRmax (r range: −0.50; −0.61), and red zone (r range: −0.50; −0.61). VIFT had unclear relationships with overall internal loads, while hemoglobin levels presented unclear relationships with overall external loads. In conclusion, no meaningful changes were found between sessions considering the format of play used. Additionally, the detected relationships indicate that VIFT and hemoglobin levels are good indicators of the performance capacity and physiological profile of players during SSGs. Also, the use of SSGs protocols as a monitoring complement of the 30-15IFT is suggested.

The passive nature of the half-time period with soccer/football can result in second-half performance decrements. As foam rolling (FR) can increase range of motion, neuromuscular efficiency, and enhance arterial function, the inclusion of FR during half-time may attenuate performance decrements. The objective of this acute study was to compare FR versus passive recovery during a simulated half-time period on simulated second-half soccer pass, sprint performance as well as quality of recovery. Thirteen male soccer players simulated a soccer match by performing two bouts of 15 × 20 m sprints with 30-s rest intervals. The bouts were separated by 10-min with either a passive recovery or they performed five FR exercises on both legs for 45-s each with 15-s rest. Tests were conducted before and following the simulated half-time period and consisted of Total Quality of Recovery (TQR), Loughborough Soccer Pass Test (LSPT), blood lactate (LAC), and sprint velocity of the simulated soccer match. Heart rates (HR) were recorded at the end of each test session and each sprint. Results showed no significant changes between conditions for TQR, LSPT, LAC and HR. However, while all sprint speed measures (mean, best of 15 sprints and mean of the first 5 sprints) significantly decreased with the passive condition, no decrement was noted with all sprint measures with the FR condition; there was only a significant (p = 0.001; d = 0.63) 2.1% decrease with the mean of the first 5 sprints. In conclusion, there is some evidence that FR may be beneficial to attenuate sprint speed impairments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

FC Bayern Munich has described its history during the Nazi era as that of a victim under the dictatorship that was systematically disadvantaged. Numerous institutions and the media have supported the football club until 2016 in presenting this self-portrayal as historical truth. Since then, doubts have been raised about this view of history due to the discovery of numerous, previously unknown sources. This article analyses the central elements of the 'heroic history' which FC Bayern is said to have written in the Third Reich. In particular, the core statements of the club museum in the Allianz Arena (Munich) are critically examined. As a result of this examination, it becomes clear that the self-image that the football club has of its role in the Nazi era is, demonstrably, a historical myth. In FC Bayern's marketing, this myth aims to enhance its reputation in the national and international media and to claim moral superiority in competition with other football clubs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This systematic review with meta-analysis (SRMA) was conducted to compare the effects of SSG-based interventions vs. running-based HIIT interventions on soccer players' sprinting time (ST), vertical height jump (VJH), and change of direction time (CODt). Data Sources: The data sources utilized were Web of Science, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and PubMed. Results: An electronic search yielded 650 articles, six of which were included in the present study. Between-group analysis found a significant favoring effect of HIIT-based over SSG-based training interventions for the improvement of linear sprinting time (ES = 0.42; p = 0.012). A within-group analysis revealed a significant favoring effect of HIIT-based training interventions for improving linear sprinting time (ES = 0.42; p = 0.008) and CODt (ES = 1.04; p = 0.005) despite a non-significant effect on VJH (ES = 0.47; p = 0.22). Conclusions: The meta-analytical comparison revealed favoring the effect of running-based HIIT over SSG-based interventions in sprinting performance, although no significant differences were observed for jumping and CODt performance. The findings suggest that SSG-based programs should be supplemented by other training methods that benefit determinant capacities in soccer players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purposes of this study were (1) to analyze between-session variations of external and internal load measures during small-sided games (SSGs) and (2) to test the relationships between the maximum speed reached (VIFT) during the last stage of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test, hemoglobin levels, and training load measures during SSG intervals among professional soccer players. Sixteen professional soccer players (mean ± SD; age 27.2 ± 3.4 years, height 174.2 ± 3.6 cm, body mass 69.1 ± 6.4 kg, and body fat 10.4 ± 4.1%) participated in this study. Hemoglobin and aerobic performance were first tested, and then a 3-week SSG program was applied using a 3 vs. 3 format. During those 3 weeks, internal and external load of entire sessions were also monitored for all training sessions. Trivial-to-small, standardized differences were observed between sessions for external and internal measures during SSGs. Total distance (TD) and mechanical work (MW) were the only variables that indicated small changes. Large-to-very-large relationships were found between VIFT and external loads: TD (r range: 0.69; 0.87), high-intensity running (HIR; r range: 0.66; 0.75), and MW (r range: 0.56; 0.68). Moderate-to-large negative relationships were found between hemoglobin levels and internal loads: Edwards' TRIMP (r range: −0.36; −0.63), %HRmax (r range: −0.50; −0.61), and red zone (r range: −0.50; −0.61). VIFT had unclear relationships with overall internal loads, while hemoglobin levels presented unclear relationships with overall external loads. In conclusion, no meaningful changes were found between sessions considering the format of play used. Additionally, the detected relationships indicate that VIFT and hemoglobin levels are good indicators of the performance capacity and physiological profile of players during SSGs. Also, the use of SSGs protocols as a monitoring complement of the 30-15IFT is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: After COVID-19 lockdown, studies across Europe and Asia examined its effect on professional soccer injury rates and severity; however, COVID-19 lockdown influence on injuries in United States men's professional soccer has not been evaluated., Hypothesis: Injury and illness rates during the 2020 season were higher than the previous 2 seasons., Study Design: Retrospective observational cohort study., Level of Evidence: Level 3., Methods: Medical staff from participating Major League Soccer (MLS) clubs entered injuries and athletic exposures during the study period into a league-wide electronic medical record system. Injury rate and severity were analyzed to examine differentials between the 2020 COVID season and historical controls., Results: The injury incidence rate per 1000 hours in 2020 was 10.8, ie, higher than 2018 (5.4) and 2019 (5.0) ( P < 0.05). Training injury incidence rate increased in 2020 (8.9) compared with 2018 (2.5) and 2019 (2.6) ( P < 0.05), whereas match injury incidence decreased in 2020 (18.3) compared with 2018 (24.0) and 2019 (22.7) ( P < 0.05). Incidence rates of lower extremity muscle injuries (6.04), anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries (0.17), and concussions (0.49) were also higher in 2020 compared with 2018 (2.5, 0.07, 0.27) and 2019 (2.36, 0.05, 0.22) ( P < 0.05). More injured players in 2020 missed >90 days (17.7%) than in 2018 (10.2%) and 2019 (10.1%) ( P < 0.05). Incidence of all non-COVID-19 illness was higher in 2020 (3.93) than 2018 (1.53) and 2019 (1.32) ( P < 0.05)., Conclusions: During 2020, there were significant increases in incidence rates of overall injuries, training injuries, lower extremity muscular injuries, ACL injuries, concussions, and non-COVID illness, along with a higher percentage of players missing >90 days compared with the 2 previous seasons., Clinical Relevance: These results may help clarify the effects of future MLS inseason work stoppages and periods of restricted training., Competing Interests: The following authors report potential conflicts of interest: H.S.-G. has received consulting fees from Major League Soccer. M.P. is the Chief Medical Officer for Major League Soccer.

Current knowledge of gaze behavior in football has primarily originated from eye-tracking research in laboratory settings. Using eye-tracking with elite players in a real-world 11 v 11 football game, this exploratory case study examined the visual fixations of midfield players in the Norwegian premier league. A total of 2,832 fixations by five players, aged 17–23 years (M = 19.84), were analyzed. Our results show that elite football midfielders increased their fixation duration when more information sources became available to them. Additionally, participants used shorter fixation durations than previously reported in laboratory studies. Furthermore, significant differences in gaze behavior between the attack and defense phases were found for both areas of interest and fixation location. Lastly, fixation locations were mainly on the ball, opponent, and teammate category and the player in possession of the ball. Combined, the results of this study enhance the knowledge of how elite footballers use their vision when playing under actual match-play conditions. They also suggest that laboratory designs may not be able to capture the dynamic environment that footballers experience in competition.

The aim of this study was to investigate position-specific endurance performance of soccer players. 136 professional players competing in the 1st and 2nd division in Germany were divided into the positional groups goalkeepers (GK), central defenders (CD), wingers (WI), central midfielders (CM), and forwards (FW). All players performed an incremental treadmill test with blood lactate sampling until exhaustion with the following endurance parameters being obtained: Fixed aerobic threshold (v2mmol/l), fixed anaerobic threshold (v4mmol/l), individual aerobic threshold (vLT), individual anaerobic threshold (vIAT), and maximum velocity (vmax). Results revealed significant differences between GK and all outfield playing positions for all endurance parameters (p ≤ 0.03; ES 0.87–2.19). No significant differences among outfield playing positions were evident for any of the parameters. However, trends were found in favor of the CM compared to the WI (p = 0.11; ES = 0.68) and the FW (p = 0.06; ES = 0.47) relating to vLT as well as in favor of the CM compared to the WI (p = 0.10; ES = 0.56) relating to vIAT. Findings suggest that goalkeepers possess the lowest endurance capacity compared to other playing positions. While outfield players in general showed similar endurance performance, CM seem to possess the highest aerobic capacity of all positions as indicated by all lactate-based thresholds, however, with only small to moderate ES. These findings could lead one to question the appropriateness of current endurance training regimes to prepare all players adequately for their positional match-running demands. Indeed, endurance training of players should be specific to their match-running demands. However, it remains unknown to what extent these demands are position or player specific.

China has launched a long-term plan for football (soccer) development. One of its strategic initiatives consists of recruiting foreign coaches to obtain advanced skills and knowledge. The aim of this article is to analyse the reasons why the competitiveness of Chinese football has not yet reached the level of other countries, as well as to investigate the role played by the knowledge transferred by coaches from a leading football country such as Spain. Based on a mixed methods research design, the results suggest three reasons for the lower level of development of football in China: the prioritisation of academic success by young Chinese football players, traditional learning via repetition and automatisms, and the lack of success of China's national football team. The study contributes to the literature on the influence of cultural factors on national athletic success. Moreover, it offers practical implications for improving China's national strategy for football development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this present study is to investigate the influence of three learning contexts on the development of motor creativity of young footballers (8–9 years old). In team sport, creativity is a fundamental issue because it allows players to adapt in an environment of high social uncertainty. To carry out this work, we suggest a method for assessing motor creativity into ecological situations based on the analysis of praxical communications. Creativity originates from an interaction between divergence and convergence. In our case, the number of communications (fluidity) and the diversity of updated communications (flexibility) are our divergence indicators. Convergence, understood as the ability to make good decisions, is assessed by two expert judges (R > 0.90). Sixty boys' football players (M = 8.67; SD = 0.3) coming from three football clubs participated in this research. The study lasted 2 years. Each year, a team of 10 players from each club participated in the research twice a week for 32 weeks (8 months), these groups attended different training sessions: (a) the control group (n = 20) followed a classical learning; (b) the decoding group (n = 20) attended training focused on learning the praxemes of football; (c) the traditional sporting games group (n = 20) followed a training session that was jointly focused on praxemes and the practice of traditional sporting games. The motor creativity of players and groups was assessed both at the beginning and at the end of the year during football matches. Compared to the control group, in the post-test, the group with the highest fluidity is the decoding group (p < 0.001) and the one with the highest fluidity is the traditional sporting games group. The latter group is also the one with the best convergence (p < 0.001). The results showed that traditional games can help develop players' creative abilities. This research invites us to investigate the complementarity between the different offered training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current knowledge of gaze behavior in football has primarily originated from eye-tracking research in laboratory settings. Using eye-tracking with elite players in a real-world 11 v 11 football game, this exploratory case study examined the visual fixations of midfield players in the Norwegian premier league. A total of 2,832 fixations by five players, aged 17–23 years (M = 19.84), were analyzed. Our results show that elite football midfielders increased their fixation duration when more information sources became available to them. Additionally, participants used shorter fixation durations than previously reported in laboratory studies. Furthermore, significant differences in gaze behavior between the attack and defense phases were found for both areas of interest and fixation location. Lastly, fixation locations were mainly on the ball, opponent, and teammate category and the player in possession of the ball. Combined, the results of this study enhance the knowledge of how elite footballers use their vision when playing under actual match-play conditions. They also suggest that laboratory designs may not be able to capture the dynamic environment that footballers experience in competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reasons why some countries outperform others in international football games warrant exploration. In this article, we argue that the synergy of economic development, democratic experience, football association duration, and low income inequality improves the performance of men's national football teams. Contemporary professional football is a typical "club good" that encourages members to act collectively by watching games, organizing associations, and investing in talent and capital for team success. We hypothesize that economic development sustains professional football, particularly in democratic regimes that allow collective action through football associations. Wealthy democracies most effectively shape institutional incentives that improve the transparency, fairness, and competitiveness of leagues and contribute to their prosperity, benefiting the talent pool for national football teams. In addition, income inequality excludes the talents from the poor and reduces national football performance. We used panel data from 119 countries for the period from 1999 to 2014 as well as fixed-effects models to verify our hypotheses. The result confirms that democracy improves national football performance. During this period, for instance, Panama, a young democracy, got 13.2% increase in estimated ln FIFA scores. By contrast, Thailand, becoming autocracy in 2007, experienced 12.6% decrease in estimated ln FIFA scores. Democracy stock also moderated the effects of a long football association history to improve national football performance. In addition, reduced income inequality increased performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The twenty-first century has seen health crises related to SARS, Swine Flu, Ebola, Zika, and COVID-19. Nations cooperated with supranational groups when deciding what to do with football operations in these crises except during the COVID-19 pandemic when the "Ostrich Alliance" viewed it as interference with their sovereignty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At a meeting in Basel on 15 June 1954, 25 of Europe's national football associations agreed to form a representative body for European football, a decision which would, four months later, give rise to the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). Five years later, the new body had exceeded the expectations of most of its founders and had become one of the most important actors in European football. Furthermore, it appeared as the sole pan-European body as other "European organizations" - created at the same period - in other fields never crossed the Iron Curtain and were mainly composed by Western Bloc or neutral countries. This paper - which summarizes some of the key arguments examined in the book Creating a United Europe of Football (2020) - looks back at UEFA's formation and early development. In doing so, it examines the issues of why UEFA developed so quickly, even though conditions for this development were not initially conducive, and how UEFA managed to overcome Cold War divisions to become a truly pan-European body. The article brings together information from original archive documents (mainly from UEFA's and FIFA's Documentation Centres, but also from national football association archives), French press reports (mostly from L'Equipe and France Football) and interviews with three leading figures in European football during the 1950s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The burden of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in professional soccer players is particularly relevant as it represents a potentially career-threatening injury.Hypothesis: Our hypotheses were that (1) injury incidence rate would be similar to that reported in the literature, (2) we would identify a uniform distribution of the injuries along the season, and (3) injury incidence rate would be similar in high-ranked and lower ranked teams, based on final placement in the league.Study Design: Descriptive epidemiological study.Level Of Evidence: Level 4.Methods: Professional male soccer players participating in the Serie A championship league in 7 consecutive seasons (2011-2012 to 2017-2018) were screened to identify ACL injuries through the online football archive transfermarkt.com . Exposure in matches and training were calculated.Results: There were 84 ACL injuries found (mean player age, 25.3 ± 4.2 years). Overall, 25% of ACL injuries were reruptures (15%) or contralateral injuries (10%). ACL incidence rate was 0.4215 per 1000 hours of play during Serie A matches, 0.0305 per 1000 hours of training (rate ratio [RR], 13.8; 95% CI, 8.4-22.7; P < 0.0001), and 0.0618 per 1000 hours of total play. Injury distribution had a bimodal peak, with the highest number of events in October and March. Alternatively, training injuries peaked in June and July. A significantly higher incidence rate was found for the teams ranked from 1st to 4th place compared with those ranked 5th to 20th (0.1256 vs 0.0559 per 1000 hours of play; RR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.4-3.6; P = 0.0003). A similar finding was found for injury incidence proportion (3.76% vs 1.64%; P = 0.0003).Conclusion: The overall incidence rate of ACL injuries in Italian Serie A was 0.062 per 1000 hours, with a 14-fold risk in matches compared with training. Relevantly, 25% were second injuries. Most injuries occurred in October and March, and an almost 2-fold incidence rate and incidence proportion were noted in those teams ranked in the first 4 positions of the championship league.Clinical Relevance: Knowing the precise epidemiology of ACL injury in one of the most competitive professional football championship leagues could help delineate fields of research aimed to investigate its risk factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aimed to describe incidence rates of concussion from alarge online survey of United States (U.S.) male and female youth soccer players; and to compare rates by age group, sex, competitive level, and practices compared to games.Methods: The survey was conducted through US Soccer consisting of three sections; demographic data, soccer heading exposure and awareness of US Soccer heading guidelines, and concussion data.Results: Respondents (n = 8,104) completed aretrospective online survey during the fall 2016 season representing 101,699 (42,048 girls; 41%) youth soccer players aged 7–14. Outcomes were concussion prevalence per 100 players and incidence per 10,000 athletic exposures (AE). Total concussion incidence for the sample was 8.48/10,000 athlete exposures (AE). Games (rather than practice) and older age (11–14) players had higher rates of concussion (Games: IRR = 5.67, Older Age: IRR = 2.68). Fewer than 1 in 5 concussions (47/253; 19%) occurred during attempted purposeful heading of the ball.Discussion: Overall, 82% (208/253) of all reported concussions received some form of clinical care. A majority of players sought care following their concussion suggesting that awareness and education efforts are having a positive effect on behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To evaluate the time to return to playing following acute Achilles tendon rupture (ATR) and surgical repair in professional male football (soccer) players.Methods: Professional male football (soccer) players who sustained an ATR and underwent surgical repair were identified through internet-based injury reports from January 2008 to August 2018. Only League 1 and 2 players with injuries who had at least 1 year of follow-up from the search date were included. Injury history and time to return to play were retrieved from the public platform transfermarkt.com. For athletes who competed for at least two seasons after returning to play, re-ruptures and number of matches played were reported.Results: 118 athletes (mean age 27.2±7.2 years) were included. 113 (96%) returned to unrestricted practice after a mean of 199±53 days, with faster recovery in players involved in national teams. Return to competition was after a mean of 274±114 days. In the 76 athletes with at least two seasons of follow-up, 14 (18%) did not compete at the pre-injury level during the two seasons following the index injury. Six players (8%) sustained a re-rupture within the first two seasons after return to play; four re-ruptures were in footballers who returned to play <180 days after injury. Age >30 years and re-ruptures had higher odds ratios of not returning to the same level of play.Conclusions: 96% of professional male football players who underwent surgery to repair an ATR returned to unrestricted practice and then competition after an average time of 7 and 9 months, respectively. However, 18% did not return to the same level of play within the two seasons following their return, with a higher risk in those experiencing a re-rupture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Recent advances in technology have enabled the development of head impact sensors, which provide a unique opportunity for sports medicine researchers to study head kinematics in contact sports. Studies have suggested that video or observer confirmation of head impact sensor data is required to remove false positives. In addition, manufacturer filtering algorithms may be ineffective in identifying true positives and removing true negatives. Purpose: To (1) identify the percentage of video-confirmed events recorded by headband-mounted sensors in high school soccer through video analysis, overall and by sex; (2) compare video-confirmed events with the classification by the manufacturer filtering algorithms; and (3) quantify and compare the kinematics of true- and false-positive events. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2. Methods: Adolescent female and male soccer teams were instrumented with headband-mounted impact sensors (SIM-G; Triax Technologies) during games over 2 seasons of suburban high school competition. Sensor data were sequentially reduced to remove events recorded outside of game times, associated with players not on the pitch (ie, field) and players outside the field of view of the camera. With video analysis, the remaining sensor-recorded events were identified as an impact event, trivial event, or nonevent. The mechanisms of impact events were identified. The classifications of sensor-recorded events by the SIM-G algorithm were analyzed. Results: A total of 6796 sensor events were recorded during scheduled varsity game times, of which 1893 (20%) were sensor-recorded events associated with players on the pitch in the field of view of the camera during verified game times. Most video-confirmed events were impact events (n = 1316, 70%), followed by trivial events (n = 396, 21%) and nonevents (n = 181, 10%). Female athletes had a significantly higher percentage of trivial events and nonevents with a significantly lower percentage of impact events. Most impact events were head-to-ball impacts (n = 1032, 78%), followed by player contact (n = 144, 11%) and falls (n = 129, 10%) with no significant differences between male and female teams. The SIM-G algorithm correctly identified 70%, 52%, and 66% of video-confirmed impact events, trivial events, and nonevents, respectively. Conclusion: Video confirmation is critical to the processing of head impact sensor data. Percentages of video-confirmed impact events, trivial events, and nonevents vary by sex in high school soccer. Current manufacturer filtering algorithms and magnitude thresholds are ineffective at correctly classifying sensor-recorded events and should be used with caution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To assess knee health in retired female football players, using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and self-report. The focus of analysis were degenerative changes of the tibiofemoral joint, and their relationship to osteoarthritis symptoms and previous knee injury.Methods: Forty-nine retired elite, female football players (98 knees) aged 37 years on average participated. Tibiofemoral cartilage and meniscus status of both knees were evaluated using MRI and graded according to modified Outerbridge and Stoller classifications, respectively. Symptoms were assessed through a standardised questionnaire (Knee Osteoarthritis Outcome Score: KOOS). Knee injury history was recorded via a semi-structured interview. To investigate how injury variables relate to outcomes, binary logistic regression models were used and reported with odds ratios (OR).Results: Fifty-one per cent of players (n = 25) fulfilled the MRI criterion for knee osteoarthritis, 69.4% (n = 34) had substantial meniscal loss and 59.6% (n = 28) reported substantial clinical symptoms. Chondral- and meniscal loss were associated with significantly lower scores on three of five KOOS subscales (p < .05). Both chondral and meniscal loss were significantly predicted by previous traumatic knee injury (OR = 4.6, OR = 2.6), the injury affecting the non-striking leg (OR = 8.6, OR = 10.6) and type of injury; participants with combined ACL/meniscus injuries had the highest risk for substantial chondral and meniscal loss (OR = 14.8, OR = 9.5). Chondral loss was significantly predicted by isolated meniscus injury treated with partial meniscectomy (OR = 5.4), but not by isolated reconstructed ACL injury. Clinical symptoms were only significantly predicted by previous traumatic knee injury (OR = 5.1).Conclusions: Serious degenerative changes were found in a high number of retired female football players' knees 10 years after their career. Meniscal integrity is key for knee osteoarthritis outcomes in young adults, and thus, its preservation should be a priority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background While head injuries and concussions are major concerns among soccer players, the multifactorial nature of head injury observations in this group remains relatively undefined. We aim to extend previous analyses and examine sex-differences in the incidence of head injuries, odds of head injuries within an injured sample, and severity of head injuries, among collegiate soccer players between 2004 and 2009. Methods Data collected within the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Injury Surveillance System (ISS) between the years of 2004 and 2009, were analyzed in this study. Unadjusted rate ratios (RR), compared incidence rates between categories of sex, injury mechanism, setting and competition level. We also examined sex-differences in head injury incidence rates, across categories of the other covariates. Multivariable logistic regression and negative binomial regression modeling tested the relation between sex and head injury corollaries, while controlling for contact, setting, and competition level. Results Between 2004 and 2009, head injuries accounted for approximately 11% of all soccer-related injuries reported within the NCAA-ISS. The rate of head injuries among women was higher than among men (RR = 1.23, 95% CI = [1.08, 1.41]). The rate of head injuries due to player-to-player contact was comparable between women and men (RR = 0.95, 95% CI = [0.81, 1.11]). Whereas, the rate of injury due to contact with apparatus (ball/goal) was nearly 2.5 times higher (RR = 2.46, 95% CI = [1.76, 3.44]) and the rate due to contact with a playing surface was over two times higher (RR = 2.29, 95% CI = [1.34, 3.91]) in women than in men. In our multifactorial models, we also observed that the association between sex and head injury corollaries varied by injury mechanism. Conclusions Sex-differences in the incidence, odds (given an injury), and severity (concussion diagnosis, time-loss) of head injuries varied by injury mechanism (player-to-player contact vs. all other mechanisms) in this sample.

This study addressed the question whether coaches better allow athletes to self-control their decisions when under pressure or whether to impose a decision upon them. To this end, an experiment was conducted that manipulated the soccer kickers’ degree of control in decision-making. Two groups of elite under-19 soccer players (n = 18) took penalty kicks in a self-controlled (i.e., kickers themselves decided to which side to direct the ball) and an externally controlled condition (i.e., the decision to which side to direct the ball was imposed upon the kickers). One group performed the penalty kick under psychological pressure (i.e., the present coaching staff assessed their performance), while the second group performed without pressure. Just before and after performing the kicks, CSAI-2 was used to measure cognitive and somatic anxiety and self-confidence. Further, the number of goals scored, ball placement and speed, and the duration of preparatory and performatory behaviors were determined. The results verified increased levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety after performing the kicks in the pressured group compared to the no-pressure group. In addition, degree of self-control affected the participants’ performance, particularly in the pressured group. They scored more goals and placed the kicks higher in the self-controlled than in the externally-controlled condition. Participants also took more time preparing and performing the run-up in the self-controlled condition. Findings indicate that increased self-control helps coping with the debilitating effects of pressure and can counter performance deteriorations. The findings are discussed within the framework of self-control theories, and recommendations for practitioners and athletes are made.

Purpose: 5th metatarsal stress fractures are frequently encountered in professional football. There is concern that early return to play following intra-medullary screw fixation may lead to an increased risk of delayed union. The purpose of the study was to assess whether an early return to play after surgical fixation of 5th metatarsal fractures in professional football players is a risk factor for delayed union and the effect of this on the ultimate clinical outcome.Methods: Retrospective review of prospectively collected data of a series of 37 professional football players following intramedullary screw fixation of 5th metatarsal stress fractures. End points included time of return to play and to radiological union of the fracture.Results: At a minimum follow-up of 24 months the mean return to play was 10.5 weeks and mean time to complete radiological union was 12.7 weeks. Return to play at 8 weeks or less resulted in a higher risk of delayed radiological union (24% at 3 months), but this neither prevented the athlete from continuing to play football nor did it affect the ultimate risk of non-union (3% overall). A re-fracture occurred in 1 patient (3%) at 10 months who previously had complete radiographic union at 9 weeks.Conclusion: Intramedullary screw fixation of 5th metatarsal stress fractures leads to a predictable time of return to play and a low rate of non-union. If players return to play at 8 weeks or less a persistent line may be expected in up to a quarter of patients. However, if asymptomatic this radiological finding does not mean that athletes must avoid playing football as ultimately a good outcome is expected with low rates of non-union and refracture.Level Of Evidence: Case series, Level IV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the nature of gambling practices is contested, a strong evidence base demonstrates that gambling can become a serious disorder and have a range of detrimental effects for individuals, communities and societies. Over the last decade, football in the UK has become visibly entwined with gambling marketing. To explore this apparent trend, we tracked shirt sponsors in both the English and Scottish Premier Leagues since 1992 and found a pronounced increase in the presence of sponsorship by gambling companies. This increase occurred at the same time the Gambling Act 2005, which liberalized rules, was introduced. We argue that current levels of gambling sponsorship in UK football, and the global visibility it provides to gambling brands, is a public health concern that needs to be debated and addressed. We recommend that legislators revisit the relationship between football in the UK and the sponsorship it receives from the gambling industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study addressed the question whether coaches better allow athletes to self-control their decisions when under pressure or whether to impose a decision upon them. To this end, an experiment was conducted that manipulated the soccer kickers' degree of control in decision-making. Two groups of elite under-19 soccer players (n = 18) took penalty kicks in a self-controlled (i.e., kickers themselves decided to which side to direct the ball) and an externally controlled condition (i.e., the decision to which side to direct the ball was imposed upon the kickers). One group performed the penalty kick under psychological pressure (i.e., the present coaching staff assessed their performance), while the second group performed without pressure. Just before and after performing the kicks, CSAI-2 was used to measure cognitive and somatic anxiety and self-confidence. Further, the number of goals scored, ball placement and speed, and the duration of preparatory and performatory behaviors were determined. The results verified increased levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety after performing the kicks in the pressured group compared to the no-pressure group. In addition, degree of self-control affected the participants' performance, particularly in the pressured group. They scored more goals and placed the kicks higher in the self-controlled than in the externally-controlled condition. Participants also took more time preparing and performing the run-up in the self-controlled condition. Findings indicate that increased self-control helps coping with the debilitating effects of pressure and can counter performance deteriorations. The findings are discussed within the framework of self-control theories, and recommendations for practitioners and athletes are made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses cultural psychology and psychological training in football (soccer). Self‐Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1980) has shown to be pragmatically successful in sport and suggests that being regulated by autonomous forms of motivation leads to better psychological outcomes. Cultural psychologists would be tempted to dismiss SDT because it is predicated on an a‐cultural approach to mind. It is possible to nurture a stronger and more effective team culture by reframing SDT in a cultural direction. As such, this paper outlines a cultural approach that reconceptualizes SDT in a way that retains the latter's pragmatic value while not approaching mind in a self‐contained individualist manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous sport-based interventions exist which target marginalised or 'at-risk' young people with the intention of enabling some form of social change for programme participants. Very often, the objective of such interventions is the acquisition and development of qualities associated with 'good citizenship'. However, critical scholars have noted how sport-based initiatives are frequently used as a form of social control, focusing on the development of personal responsibility. As such, these initiatives accentuate more passive forms of citizenship, as opposed to more active forms of citizenship towards which many educational policies and programmes are aimed. Nevertheless, there is a limited amount literature which explores the connection between sport-based interventions and citizenship development within marginalised or 'at-risk' youth populations. This paper presents findings from a small-scale, qualitative study of one such (football-based) intervention located in a number of inner-city boroughs of London, UK. Placing the accounts of programme participants and staff at the centre of the analysis, the paper: (i) uncovers the practicalities and nuances of football being utilised as a tool for social engagement, and (ii) explores broader notions of personal and behavioural development in relation to the acquisition of citizenship qualities. The paper concludes by suggesting that sporting activity may confer citizenship benefits for young people, but only when integrated into wider programmes of social support and community engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]