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The effect of aloe gel (AG) and vegetable oil (VO) as animal fat replacers on the texture, dynamic rheology, microstructure, and oxidative stability of low-fat meat emulsions was evaluated. There was no difference in complex viscosity (η*), G’0 - G’’0, and An values between 50% fat replacement and full-fat meat emulsion samples. In all the samples, the G′ values were much higher than G″ values with a small frequency dependency. In low-fat meat emulsion (50% fat replacement) samples, the difference between G’ and G’’ was higher which suggested strong matrix network structure. Hardness and springiness values were affected (P < 0.05) by addition of AG and were in agreement with dynamic rheological parameters (G’ and G’’). The scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images of meat emulsion samples containing 50% AG showed more regular, compact, and dense continuous phase as compared to other samples. Higher oxidative stability (low TBARs) was observed (P < 0.05) in samples which contained AG.

This work was aimed to identify the LC50 of the indigenous fungal isolates for controlling L. erysimi infesta-tion in mustard aphid besides to probe the mechanism of action of the local isolates and comparison of the efficacy with the reference culture and commercial formulation ‘Mycojaal’. Three isolates of entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana were tested for infection on nymph of Lipaphis erysimi Kalt. using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to record any variation. The SEM revealed adhesion of spores of B.bassiana followed by penetration of L.erysimi nymph surface. It was observed that all Beauveria isolates showed little variation with respect to penetration and adhesion at different time intervals. Further, lethal concentration (LC50) values of B. bassiana isolates against L. erysimi was recorded and was lowest (0.05x107 spores/ml) in B. bassiana MTCC 4495 and highest (0.11.X107 spores/ml) was recorded in native isolate F10 after 120 hours of treatment. The study has established the need for the isolation and evaluation of the indigenous Beauveria isolate. Moreover, it also exhibited the efficacy of the reference and commercially available biocontrol agents.

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Aeromonas hydrophila is an important finfish pathogen, besides being an opportunistic human pathogen. In the present study, the genomes of three A. hydrophila-specific phages, CF8, PS1, and PS2, were isolated, characterized and sequenced. Transmission electron microscopy showed that all three phages had typical Myoviridae morphology. The linear dsDNA genomes of CF8, PS1, and PS2 were 238,150 bp, 237,367 bp, and 240,447 bp in length, with a GC content of 42.2%, 38.8%, and 38.8%, respectively. The low sequence similarity (67.6% - 69.8% identity with 27.0% - 29.0% query coverage) to other phage genomes in the NCBI database indicated the novel nature of the CF8, PS1, and PS2 genomes. A total of 244, 247, and 250 open reading frames (ORFs) were predicted in the CF8, PS1, and PS2 genome, respectively. During the annotation process, functional predictions were made for 28-31 ORFs, while the rest were classified as "hypothetical proteins" with yet unknown functions. Genes for tRNAs were also detected in all phage genomes. As all three phages in the present study had a very narrow host range with lytic activity against only one strain of A. hydrophila, these phages could be good candidates for phage typing applications. Moreover, the endolysin- and lytic-transglycosylase-encoding genes could be used for recombinant cloning and expression of anti-microbial proteins.

Inadequate and nutritionally unbalanced supply of forage results in low productivity of livestock. There is an urgent need of burgeoning forage supply by amalgamating organic and inorganic components in integrated manner.Thereupon, the present investigation was carried out to evaluate the potential of liquid microbial inoculants on growth and yield of forage cowpea.The field experiments were conducted during kharif season (2018) at Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Bathinda and Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab respectively. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with a total of eleven treatment combinations of liquid microbial inoculants (Burkholderia seminalis, Burkholderia sp. and Bradyrhizobium sp.) with 75% and 100% RDF and replicated thrice. Results indicated that the treatment T10 (75% RDF + Burkholderia sp. + Burkholderia seminalis) significantly p less then0.05 enhanced vine length (210.47 and 205.33 cm), leaf length (11.77 and 11.53), leaf breadth (8.97 and 9.14 cm) and dry matter yield (40.13 and 38.18 q/ha) at Ludhiana and Bathinda respectively. Moreover, the percentage increase in green fodder yield (q/ha) with T10 treatment over T1 (control) was 13.21% at Ludhiana and 12.50% at Bathinda. Accordingly, it can be concluded that liquid microbial inoculants could play a predominant role in integrated nutrient management of forage cowpea for enhanced productivity.

Identifying the importance of soil biology in different land use systems is critical to assess the present conditions of declining soil (C) and global land degradation while regulating soil health and biogeochemical nutrient cycling. A study was undertaken in a mixed watershed comprising of different land use systems (agricultural, grassland, agroforestry, and eroded), situated in the Shiwalik region in the foot hills of the lower Himalayas in India, a fragile ecosystem susceptible to land degradation. Soil samples from 0&ndash, 15 and 15&ndash, 30 cm depths were collected from these land use systems and analyzed for a suite of different soil health indicators, including physio-chemical soil properties, aggregate stability, soil microflora, and the enzymatic activities that are critical for nutrient cycling. Principal component analysis was used to group different land uses and understand their association with soil microflora, enzyme activities, and soil physio-chemical properties. We found that a greater number of soil microflora and enzymatic activities were associated with grassland and agroforestry land use systems. Aggregate-associated soil C correlated well with the soil microflora under different land use systems studied. The biplots revealed that the fungal:bacterial ratio (2 &times, 103&ndash, 0.1 &times, 103) was a robust indicator of C accumulation and soil health, and was in greater association with the agroforestry land use system. Random forest, a non-parametric statistical test, on average explained that 68% to 92% of the variability in soil microbial population was due to land use and other soil health properties. Overall, the biological soil health indicators used in this study demonstrated the fact that land use management systems that employ constant crop cover with minimal disturbance have the potential to improve soil sustainability and ecological functioning.

Agri-nanotechnology, an active and emerging field of research and development (R&D), hails research on improved and balanced nutrition through the use of nano-fertilizers, and targeted and sustained release of active ingredient from nano-pesticides. Furthermore, nano-interventions include proper monitoring of a variety of factors such as soil edaphic, abiotic (temperature, moisture, pH, nutrient content), and biotic (pest and pathogens) by employing in planta/in situ/ex situ portable sensor systems for fruit crops. Numerous post-harvest management applications have also been reported, including the development of efficient nano-enabled packaging and processing systems. However, this upcoming technology is yet in its developmental stages and is likely to be commercialized. Nonetheless, the anticipated benefits will fuel further progress in this field in the coming years. The chapter reviews all these aspects in relation to fruit crops.

Omics studies in plants have helped in the molecular characterization of whole plants or their organs. However, these studies lack information on cellular behavior, cell-to-cell variations, and distinct molecular program(s) operational in individual cells. As an enormous variability exists owing to the type and developmental stage of plant cell/tissue(s), the multidimensionality and complexity of cellular responses in plants towards the environment and growth stages requires descaling to single-cell-type omics technologies to dissect the complex responses to obtain concrete information of components at the ultrastructural, subcellular, or organellar hierarchies of the genome, transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome pathways. Further, single-cell multiomics studies aiming at simultaneous extraction and analysis of different analyte biomolecules in a cell will help in validating the relative changes occurring in a cell to a specific event or elicitor. The integration of the four different omics data and development of an interactome having nodes and edges will then help in designing a comprehensive regulatory system operating in an individual cell. The near complete integrative information on the working and operations of emphatic plant biological systems will furnish us with the ingenuity to design climate-ready resilient crops to cope with the aberrant environmental stresses.

Nano-engineering, an emerging engendering field, encompasses bottom-up synthesis of diverse novel materials/structures that can be assembled or augmented to fabricate innovative devices and systems showcasing unique multi-functionalities. It has entrailed down the beverage production, processing and preservation, packaging, quality monitoring, and shelf life/safety-related technologies through design of predictive models, tools/apparatus at nanoscale. The nano-enabled packaging panacea spans over supplementation of nanomaterials (could be inorganic or organic in origin) in commercially viable synthetic polymers to embellish their mechanical, optical, and thermal properties besides contriving novel antimicrobial, moisture/gas adsorbing/absorbing or repelling, and bio-catalytical functionalities thereby enhancing the shelf life, nutritional quality, and safety of the packaged beverages. The nano-processing interventions rather involve developing beverages fortified with nanoscale nutrients (zinc, iron, calcium, and selenium); nutraceuticals (flavonoids and phenolics); biocolorants or dietary supplements including secondary metabolites like beta-carotene, lycopene; flavor concealment or multiple flavor augmentations; and creation of new textures of diverse structural components. This chapter explores the extent of introgression of nano-interventions in beverage industry to address the daunting challenges of development of novel beverage formulations, and recent nano-trends in beverages as functional foods.

The development of nanoscale fertilizers hallmarks the practical insurgence of nanotechnology interventions for agriculture. This can invariably be iterated through the rising research reports on possible effects which get either diverged or transformed on nanoscaling of nutrient elements compared to their bulk forms. The nutritional aspect of elements of plant importance has been known since the pioneer work of Arnon, Stout, and Hoagland in the early 1930s to 1950s. However, the impact of physical state of nutrient particularly the crystallinity status and morphology (shape, size dimensions, and topography) on interaction with soil components, plant, and microbial cells and its role in improved uptake and mobilization/assimilation and distribution inside the crop plant have gained an impetus in the present two decades. This manuscript will provide information on the improvement in the use efficiency of the nano-sized fertilizer nutrient elements, their role in enhancing the agronomic yields, and possibilities of realization through conjugation with precision farming tools and techniques.

Nanotechnology has introgressed to several disciplines of science and technology besides recent applications for improving the crop production and environmental sanctity of the arable lands. Though incipient, an impetus has been observed for the development of new-age smart nano-fertilizers which include both novel formulations of conventional fertilizers and adsorbed/encapsulated nano-nutrients. The phyto- and eco-toxicity issues of these novel nano-scale fertilizers have further escalated the need for alternatives that can diffuse the negative application effects of nano-fertilizer alone. The most feasible improvement can be nano-biofertilizers—a conjugate preparation involving combinatorial application of nano- and bio-fertilizers (including an array of soil beneficial microbes) to obtain enhanced and sustainable crop productivity with better addressal of environmental safety.

Sustainability refers to a multi-dimensional integrative approach for any production system to achieve growth targets while managing the inputs and outputs prudently. This aspect holds its new promise for agriculture, particularly the vegetable production systems which are run as marginal or medium-scale operations. Hence, these cannot afford a piecemeal approach to maintain productivity standards over longtime. Nanotechnology interventions for vegetable production and protection can assure improved productivity with low inputs, enhanced input use efficiency, precision application through quick diagnosis of the pest/pathogen attack, and by curbing non-target losses that may lead to environmental contamination and hazards. In spite of the great promise of nanoproducts and nanodevices, the requirement of bulk quantity under field conditions (particularly for nanofertilizers and nanopesticides) and the economic cost of production (of nanosensors for pest/pathogen diagnostics) are substantially high. However, these issues of nanoagri-products can be off-set through scaled-up production using improved manufacturing technologies. Further, the stigmatization of the nanoagri-ventures to follow the socio-psychological fate similar to genetically modified crops is also required to be effectively dealt with firm efforts from agri-nanoresearchers. This discipline is in its incipient stage, but it holds promise for enhanced productivity with less depletion of the resources and maintenance of ecological sanctity.

Nano-fertilizers of essential plant nutrients, including micronutrients, have the potential to improve nutrient use efficiency and productivity of field crops in deficient soils. The present study reports the comparative influence of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) and bulk Zn salt (ZnSO4) on the growth, yield, and quality of fodder maize (Zea mays) (var. J-1006) cultivated under field conditions in the year 2019. Three levels (0, 20, and 40 mg L−1) of Zn fertilizers were used for seed priming and coating in triplicate following the randomized complete block design model. An increase in vegetative and yield parameters (number of plants, plant height, stover yield, plant biomass), acid detergent fiber (ADF%), and hemicellulose contents and shoot zinc (Zn) content on treatment of seeds with ZnONPs (20 mg L−1) concentration as compared to bulk ZnSO4 and control treatments was observed. The application of ZnONPs (40 mg L−1) significantly enhanced the total chlorophyll content, available soil nitrogen and phosphorus, neutral detergent fiber (NDF%), and cellulose contents and improved the total soil microbial counts and soil enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, acid and alkaline phosphatase enzyme activities), whereas a significant increase in available soil potassium and zinc contents was recorded under ZnONPs (20 mg L−1) treatments. These findings suggest an encouraging effect on the growth and yield attributing characteristics of fodder maize after ZnONPs seed coating at low concentration. Furthermore, ZnONPs seed coating can also be considered an effective tool for the delivery of Zn micronutrient to fodder maize crop.

Waterlogging stress in maize is one of the emerging abiotic stresses in the current climate change scenario. To gain insights in transcriptional reprogramming during late hours of waterlogging stress under field conditions, we aimed to elucidate the transcriptional and anatomical changes in two contrasting maize inbreds viz. I110 (susceptible) and I172 (tolerant). Waterlogging stress reduced dry matter translocations from leaves and stems to ears, resulting in a lack of sink capacity and inadequate grain filling in I110, thus decreased the grain yield drastically. The development of aerenchyma cells within 48 h in I172 enabled hypoxia tolerance. The upregulation of alanine aminotransferase, ubiquitin activating enzyme E1, putative mitogen activated protein kinase and pyruvate kinase in I172 suggested that genes involved in protein degradation, signal transduction and carbon metabolism provided adaptive mechanisms during waterlogging. Overexpression of alcohol dehydrogenase, sucrose synthase, aspartate aminotransferase, NADP dependent malic enzyme and many miRNA targets in I110 indicated that more oxygen and energy consumption might have shortened plant survival during long-term waterlogging exposure. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of transcript profiling at late stage (24−96 h) of waterlogging stress under field conditions and provides new visions to understand the molecular basis of waterlogging tolerance in maize.

Green synthesized metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) have prominent applications in antimicrobial packaging systems. Here we have attempted for the fabrication of chitosan-based nanocomposite film containing Urtica dioica leaf extract derived copper oxide (CuO) and zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs for shelf-life extension of the packaged guava fruits. Electron microscopy and spectroscopy analysis of the CuO and ZnO NPs exhibited nano-scale size, spherical morphologies, and negative ζ-potential values. The NPs possessed appreciable antioxidant and antimicrobial activity (AMA) in order of CuO NPs &gt, ZnO NPs &gt, nettle extract. Therefore, this work establishes for the first time the successful synthesis of CuO NPs and compares its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties with ZnO NPs. On incorporation in chitosan, the polymer nanocomposite films were developed by solvent casting technique. The developed films were transparent, had low antioxidant but substantial AMA. The NP supplementation improved the film characteristics as evident from the decrease in moisture content, water holding capacity, and solubility of the films. The nanocomposite films improved the quality attributes and shelf life of guava fruits by one week on packaging and storage compared to unpackaged control fruits. Therefore, this study demonstrates the higher antimicrobial potential of the nettle leaf extract derived CuO/ZnO NPs for development of antimicrobial nanocomposite films as a promising packaging solution for enhancing the shelf life of various perishable fruits.

Synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) having unique potentials and properties is of great importance in nanotechnology. The NP synthesis techniques may include the wet chemistry to microbial incubation reduction methods. This work reports generation of ZnO NPs by identical preparation including incubation of different zinc salts i.e. zinc acetate, zinc chloride and zinc sulphate as precursors with cell free extracts of Bacillus circulans MTCC 7906 (Bc7906) and Pleurotus florida (Pf). The synthesized NPs exhibited variation in their absorption peaks in UV-Vis spectra which appeared at 275 nm, 325 nm and 375 nm with P. florida for the three salt precursors respectively while the Bc7906 generated ZnO NPs showed peaks between 300-350 nm. A variation in ZnO NP morphology ranged from 50 to 120 nm in size and spherical, oval, cylindrical to trigonal anisotropic in shape by transmission EM. Further, the rough and corrugated surface topography of ZnO NPs was observed in Scanning EM. The % weight for Zn element surface composition as recorded by SEM-EDS was observed to be highest for zinc acetate (2.34%) and zinc sulphate (7.54 %) on microbial synthesis from Bc7906 and Pf respectively. The antimicrobial potential of the synthesized ZnO NPs on human pathogenic and plant beneficial bacteria was tested and it was observed to be highest for microbially synthesized ZnO NPs using zinc acetate (15 mm) and zinc sulphate (14 mm) as salt precursors @ 10 ppm. This is the first report on differential antimicrobial behavior of ZnO NPs on human pathogenic and plant beneficial microbes.

Isolation of endophytic actinomycetes is an important step to screen antimicrobial compounds to curb the threat of drug-resistant strains of human pathogens. Out of the 50 endophytic actinomycetes obtained from surface sterilized root, stem and leaf tissues of Syzygium cumini, 50 isolates (30%) exhibited antimicrobial activity. Antistaphylococcal activity was displayed by most of the isolates, with maximum percent inhibition by J-10 (Mean of Inhibition Factor=12.12 mm2). A total of 8 isolates (4 each) were able to hydrolyse protein (proteinase activity) and solubilize chitin (chitinase activity). Results of thin layer chromatography confirm the production of chloramphenicol family |antibiotic by the isolate J-5. This is the first report providing an insight into untapped endophytic actinomycete milieu of Syzygium cumini yet to be explored which might be a promising source for novel antimicrobial agents.

Single step direct transgenic plant regeneration from agro-infected sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) spindle leaf roll segments with assured genetic fidelity is reported. The pre-cultured (96 h) leaf segments of cultivar CoJ 83 were incubated (10 min) with intermittent shaking in Agrobacterium suspension (OD 1.0–1.2) carrying antifungal gene encoding β-1,3-glucanase under the control of CaMV 35S promoter and NOS terminator, in presence of acetosyringone. Thereafter, the segments were co-cultivated (72 h) and transferred for shoot regeneration. The scanning electron micrographs of sectioned leaf segments undergoing in vitro shoot regeneration revealed occurrence of globular structures in clusters near cut leaf edges within 10 days of incubation. In each cluster, two to ten structures of varying sizes occurred concurrently. The sectioning of globular structures confirmed that these were arising directly from pre-embryogenic determined palisade cells, had unicellular origin and were referred to as adventive embryos. The adventive embryos successively expressed their potential for direct shoot regeneration without callus interphase in 3 weeks and transgenic plant formation within a short period of 8 weeks. The integration of β-1,3-glucanase transgene and its expression in T0 plants were determined by reverse transcription-PCR and quantitative real time-PCR, respectively. Simple sequence repeat DNA markers did not detect any polymorphism in the transgenic plants, pointing towards assured genetic fidelity of the plants.

Edible coatings are safer for human health and environment compared to synthetic waxes. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of different edible coatings on extending cold storage life and maintaining fruit quality of ‘Kinnow’ mandarin (Citrus nobilis L. x Citrus deliciosa L.). Kinnow fruit coating treatments included 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 g L−1 carboxy methylcellulose (CMC), 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 g L−1 chitosan and 5, 10 and 15 g L−1 beeswax were contrasted to the uncoated (control) fruit. The coated and uncoated fruit were kept under cold storage conditions (5–7 °C and 90–95% RH) up to 75 days. The fruit were sampled following 30, 45, 60 and 75 days cold storage and evaluated for different quality parameters and scanning electron microscopy of the peel surface. The results indicate variability among the different polymer coatings for weight loss, spoilage loss, juice content, firmness, pectin content, the activity of pectin methylesterase and cellulase, soluble solids concentration (SSC), titratable acidity (TA), ascorbic acid content, total carotenoids content and organoleptic sensory attributes. Improved fruit gloss was observed in all coatings treatments, however, with the extension of the cold storage period, the fruit coated with chitosan and beeswax showed outward ruptures on the rind. Amongst all, the coatings tested, CMC (2.0 g L-1) coating was the most effective in maintaining various fruit quality parameters such as SSC, TA, vitamin C, sensory attributes and retarding the activities of cell wall degrading enzymes such as pectin methylesterase and cellulase up to 60 days in cold storage.

The era of chemical and physical synthesis of nanoparticles is coming to an end as the concerns regarding toxic byproducts and drastic experimental conditions pile up. Biological or green synthesis of nanoparticles has gained a lot of attention in the past decade as it offers an environmentally benign alternative to chemical and physical strategies. Synthesis of nanoparticles using edible and medicinal mushrooms has emerged as an interesting field of research as these macrofungi act as eco-friendly biofactories the secrete enzymes essential for reduction of metal ions into their zerovalent or nano-form. Apart from being an environmentally friendly, the nanoparticles synthesized using mushrooms exhibit higher stability, longer shelf life and enhanced biological activities. While the mechanism of synthesis is still not fully understood, reports suggest that fungal reductases and flavins have a major role to play. A variety of macrofungi have been used for synthesis of metal (Au, Ag, Fe, Pt etc.) and non-metal (Se, CdS etc.) nanoparticles. These nanoparticles have found vast applications in advanced biomedical and industrial ventures. More understanding of the synthesis mechanism would help in optimization of the synthesis protocols for controlled size and shape of nanopartilces.

Ganoderma lucidum, a specie belonging to the class basidiomycetes, family polyporaceae of the order aphyllophorales has been widely utilized as a source of potential nutracuetical products. The cell wall of Ganoderma lucidum contains ergosterol which gets increased over different stage of the cultivation process. Ergosterol serves as the precursor for vitamin D, serves as the immunodulating agent in cancer suppression and has been the molecule of choice for antimycotic drug development. Thus, drug formulations of ergosterols or its conjugating complexes may enhance immunity and Vitamin D levels in the body. Ganoderma lucidum is also a rich source of pharmaceutical proteins and protein bound polysaccharides that can also serve as anti-cancer agents thereby improving the immune status of the individual. Other proteins found in Ganoderma lucidum are the morphogenesis related proteins such as hydophobins and an elaborate antioxidant enzyme machinery synthesized during the developmental stages. The intracellular and extracellular enzymatic profile of Ganderma exhibits enhanced activity during spawn run and pinning of the cultures. A positive role of hydrophobic amino acids and hydrophobin proteins has been identified in mushroom fructification process. Thus, medicinal mushroom such as Ganoderma can serve as a potential reservoir of bioactive compounds of pharmaceutic importance that can be utilized for prevention and cure of several disorders.

Plant biotechnology (PBT) encompasses a multitude of scientific tools and techniques for screening and genetic manipulation of plants to develop beneficial or useful plant/plant products. The proficiency of these tools and techniques could be augmented by nanotechnological interventions. The novelty and innovativeness of the transgressing discipline of nanotechnology benchmarks the synthesis, characterization, manipulation, and applications of matter at a scale of 1–100 nm such that it digresses from its bulk counterparts manifesting neoteric properties. Nanotechnology has equipped crop biotechnologists to elucidate molecular pathways for plant responses and tailor designer crops by use of nanomaterials (NMs) as vehicles for gene or proteins. Augmenting NMs has led to development of bionic plants that could efficiently capture solar radiations for higher productivity as well as could be multiplexed to behave as sensors. Nanoprobes like semiconductor and metal nanocrystals could be very useful for high-resolution imaging of the plant cell and organs. These nanobioimaging tools could be harnessed to discern dynamics of plant cell’s biochemical and physiological responses in real time, and NMs could be used for four-dimensional imaging of plant growth responses. The plant disease theranostics has also been immensely improved, so that there is greater accuracy, speed, and sensitivity for detection of genetics of pests, pathogens, and crop plants including nanobarcodes for identification of genetically modified crops. The plant cell nanofactories could not only perform green and ecofriendly synthesis of NMs but also improve/alter seed germination and plant growth through a plethora of complex NM–biological system interactions. This chapter would perceive various nanotechnological interventions for PBT and would discuss the present status of research and development in this state-of-the-art discipline.

The present investigation explores the effect of selenium supplementation on radial growth and ultrastructural alterations in the hyphae and spores of Ganoderma lucidum. A concentration dependent decrease in radial growth was observed on culturing G. lucidum on sodium selenate supplemented mushroom minimal agar post 24 h. However, in comparison to control, selenium supplementation slightly increased diameter of radial growth till 10 ppm after 48 h. The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) studies of radial growth showed selenium concentration dependent gradual decrease in hyphal diameter suggesting thinning and extensive branching of mycelia in response to increased Se supplementation. Moreover, SE micrographs also depict selenium concentration dependent decrease in number of spores and spore size. A significant decrease in spore diameter was recorded for mushroom minimal agar supplemented with 20 and 25 ppm (5.64 and 1.26 μm, respectively) as compared to control (10.04 μm). The spore were morphologically altered from spherical to oval or oblong and inflated to constrict deformed on increasing selenium concentration. SEM-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) studies of intact mycelia showed no traces of selenium. However, crushed mycelia samples exhibited Se signals probably due to presence of selenium as integral component of cytosolic moieties like selenoproteins. Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) of mycelia showed an increasing trend in the uptake of selenium with increased selenium supplementation. Percentage absorption was found to be in range of 7.2 - 9.9% with maximum absorption at concentrations of 15 and 25 ppm. Hence, sodium selenate supplementation at 10 ppm (with maximum 15 ppm) can be used for Se fortification as Ganoderma can grow rapidly without significant alteration in structure and morphology to enhance its biomedicinal properties. Key words: Ganoderma, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), SEM-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), selenium, selenoproteins.

Interspecific hybrids were developed between Trifolium alexandrinum cultivar Wardan × Trifolium vesiculosum and T. alexandrinum cultivar BL1 × T. vesiculosum through embryo rescue, as the crosses failed to set seed under natural conditions. Trifolium vesiculosum was used as a donor/male parent in this study as it is reported to possess tolerance to stem rot and high forage yield. Fertilization in crossed florets of the crosses was manifested from the recovery of swollen ovaries ( 93.00%) of the swollen ovaries. The hybrid embryos at various developmental stages (heart, torpedo and cotyledonary) were rescued at a frequency of 2.56% from Wardan × T. vesiculosum and 6.12% from BL1 × T. vesiculosum. Differentiation occurred only in the cotyledonary stage embryos, resulting in 17 putative interspecific hybrid plantlets. The assessment of plantlet hybridity through SSR markers (for the alleles inherited from the donor parent), micromorphological leaf traits (leaf texture and stomata) and morphological characters (plant height, leaflet length and width) confirmed production of two interspecific hybrids designated as AV1 and BV3 representing both the crosses. AV1 displayed moderate resistance and BV3 was resistant to stem rot.

Ganoderma lucidum has been widely used as a source of potent nutraceutical products. This study was planned to identify and characterize the role of ergosterol in the developmental process of G. lucidum. Four strains of G. lucidum (GL-I-IV) showed a gradual increase in biomass (from 25.52 to 31.72 g) after 3 weeks of growth in mushroom complete medium broth, with maximum biomass observed for strain GL-III. Upon cultivation of G. lucidum strains on wheat straw supplemented with 5% wheat bran, maximum biological efficiency was recorded for the GL-I strain (31.23%), followed by GL-II (26.73%); the number of fruiting bodies were 927 and 693, each weighing 33.7 and 38.6 g, respectively. The amount of ergosterol in the Ganoderma test strains varied among the strains and at different developmental stages, namely, the vegetative mycelium, spawn run, pinhead, and fruiting body phases. The maximum ergosterol content was produced by the GL-I strain during the vegetative mycelium (4601 p.g/g) and reproductive fruiting body (7009 p.g/g) stages. However, strain GL-IV followed by strain GL-II exhibited maximum ergosterol content in the spawn run stage. The ergosterol content was better for GL-II at the pinhead stage. This report indicates that ergosterol content varies among the test strains. Moreover, it increases with each stage of the cultivation process, that is, from spawn run to pinhead to and fruiting body formation.

Fruit preservation and packaging have been practiced since ages to maintain the constant supply of seasonal fruits over lengthened periods round the year. However, health and safety issues have attracted attention in recent decades. The safety and quality assurance of packaged fruits/fruit products are vital concerns in present day world-wide-integrated food supply chains. The growing demand of minimally or unprocessed packaged fruits has further aggravated the safety concerns which fuelled in extensive research with objectives to develop novel techniques of food processing, preservation, and packaging as well as for rapid, accurate, and early detection of contaminant products/microbes. Nevertheless, fruits and fruit-based products have yet to observe a panoramic introduction. Tropics and subtropics are the stellar producers of a variety of fruits; majority if not all is perishable and prone to postharvest decay. This evoked the opportunity to critically review the global scenario of emerging and novel techniques for fruit preservation and packaging, hence providing insight for their future implementation. This review would survey key nanotechnology innovations applied in preservation, packaging, safety, and storage of fruits and fruit-based products. The challenges and pros and cons of wider application of these innovative techniques, their commercial potential, and consumer acceptability have also been discussed.

ZnO nanoparticle induced exopolysaccharide (EPS) production from Bacillus subtilis strain JCT1 (NCBI GenBank Accession No. JN194187 ) is a novel approach for arid soil applications. In the series of investigations, environmentally benign protocol was followed for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using extracellular enzymes obtained from Aspergillus fumigatus TFR8. Putative characterization techniques were employed for confirmation of size, shape, surface structure, crystalline nature and elemental proportion of ZnO nanoparticles. Results established an average size of ZnO nanoparticles to be 2.9 nm at least at one dimension and oblate spherical in structure. The qualitative composition of the nanoparticles exhibited 97.5% Zn element atom percentage. Biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles enhanced exopolysaccharide production by 596.1% as compared to control and further EPS amelioration led to enhanced soil aggregation (up to 82%), moisture retention (10.7–14.2%) and soil organic carbon. Soil aggregation stability was further confirmed by Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy. A possible ZnO nanoparticle mediated biological mechanism for enhancing exopolysaccharide production has been discussed.

An ideal biomaterial for wound dressing applications should possess antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties without any toxicity to the host cells while providing the maximum healing activity. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) possess antimicrobial activity and enhance wound healing, but the questions regarding their safety arise before application to the biological systems. We synthesized ZnONPs-loaded-sodium alginate-gum acacia hydrogels (SAGA-ZnONPs) by cross linking hydroxyl groups of the polymers sodium alginate and gum acacia with the aldehyde group of gluteradehyde. Here, we report the wound healing properties of sodium alginate/gum acacia/ZnONPs, circumventing the toxicity of ZnONPs simultaneously. We demonstrated the concentration-dependent zones of inhibition in treated cultures of Pseudomonas aerigunosa and Bacillus cereus and biocompatability on peripheral blood mononuclear/fibroblast cells. SAGA-ZnONPs hydrogels showed a healing effect at a low concentration of ZnONPs using sheep fibroblast cells. Our findings suggest that high concentrations of ZnONPs were toxic to cells but SAGA-ZnONPs hydrogels significantly reduced the toxicity and preserved the beneficial antibacterial and healing effect.

Biofertilizers have long been assessed as powerful technology to obtain sustainable enhanced crop production. The present investigation revealed the positive effects of inoculation of Azotobacter biofertilizer on growth and yield parameters in sugarcane var. CoJ 83 under field conditions. Application of Azotobacter biofertilizer at both the nitrogen levels (N75% Rec and N100% Rec levels) resulted in significant increase in the cane yield over the respective controls. Maximum increase in cane yield was recorded by Azotobacter inoculation at recommended dose of nitrogen. Inoculation with Azotobacter at N75% Rec level of N fertilizer resulted in cane yield that was observed to be statistically at par with N100% Rec level. The application of this biofertilizer would not only be beneficial keeping in view the phenomenon of enhanced productivity using environmentally benign technology, but also would be useful to obtain better yield with improvement of the soil microbial ecology/soil food web.

Modern agriculture largely relies on the extensive application of agrochemicals, including inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. Indiscriminate, long-term and over-application of pesticides have severe effects on soil ecology that may lead to alterations in or the erosion of beneficial or plant probiotic soil microflora. Weathered soils lose their ability to sustain enhanced production of crops/grains on the same land. However, burgeoning concern about environmental pollution and the sustainable use of cropping land have emphasized inculcation of awareness and the wider application of tools, techniques and products that do not pollute the environment at all or have only meager ecological concerns. This review covers the types of, concerns about and current issues regarding the extensive application of agrochemicals, in particular pesticides, on a variety of microorganisms integrated in successive food chains in the soil food web.

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is a commercially important crop, vulnerable to fungal disease red rot caused by Colletotrichum falcatum Went. The pathogen attacks sucrose accumulating parenchyma cells of cane stalk leading to severe losses in cane yield and sugar recovery. We report development of red rot resistant transgenic sugarcane through expression of β-1,3-glucanase gene from Trichoderma spp. The transgene integration and its expression were confirmed by quantitative reverse transcription-PCR in first clonal generation raised from T0 plants revealing up to 4.4-fold higher expression, in comparison to non-transgenic sugarcane. Bioassay of transgenic plants with two virulent C. falcatum pathotypes, Cf 08 and Cf 09 causing red rot disease demonstrated that some plants were resistant to Cf 08 and moderately resistant to Cf 09. The electron micrographs of sucrose storing stalk parenchyma cells from these plants displayed characteristic sucrose-filled cells inhibiting Cf 08 hyphae and lysis of Cf 09 hyphae; in contrast, the cells of susceptible plants were sucrose depleted and prone to both the pathotypes. The transgene expression was up-regulated (up to 2.0-fold in leaves and 5.0-fold in roots) after infection, as compared to before infection in resistant plants. The transgene was successfully transmitted to second clonal generation raised from resistant transgenic plants. β-1,3-glucanase protein structural model revealed that active sites Glutamate 628 and Aspartate 569 of the catalytic domain acted as proton donor and nucleophile having role in cleaving β-1,3-glycosidic bonds and pathogen hyphal lysis.

Out of 70 isolates of actinomycetes obtained from medicinal plants, 21 displayed antagonistic activity against Alternaria alternata, Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia solani. All the isolates were screened for hydrolytic enzymes production. Among these, 47 isolates produced amylase, 25 protease and 16 were having ability to produce chitinase. The extracellular chitinase activity of two selected isolates AR3 and O9 was evaluated (0.083 and 0.080 U/ml) with 0.6% colloidal chitin, which was found better as compared to 1% colloidal chitin. Scanning electron microscopy revealed rupture of F. oxysporum mycelial cell wall at the area of interaction with O9. The endophytic actinomycete isolate O9 was identified as Streptomyces rochei strain KMB-1 by 16S rDNA sequencing. This isolate was found to be promising in terms of seed germination and Fusarium wilt control in muskmelon under green house conditions.

A nanocomposite degradable chitosan-rice starch (CRS) film was prepared by incorporation of Commercial (Comm.) and microbial synthesized silver (Ag) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) using solvent casting technique. The prepared films were characterized for thickness, surface color measurement, transparency, presence of crystalline features, surface topography and surface elemental composition. The fabricated nanocomposite films were evaluated for antimicrobial activity and were observed to curb growth of test Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) as well as Gram-positive microorganism (Staphylococcus aureus) in in vitro media petri plate study. The screened nanocomposite films were then tested to improve the shelf life of peach fruits (cv. Shan-i-Punjab) on packaging. The NPs incorporated nanocomposite films decreased the overall surface microbial load and enhanced the shelf life of packed peach fruits as compared to unpackaged and packaged fruits with control film. The lowest percentage loss in weight (4.75%) was recorded in peach fruits packaged with film incorporated with Comm. Ag NPs. Lowest change in diameter (4.25 cm to 4.05 cm) and highest ascorbic acid content (0.51 mg per g) was found in peach fruits packaged with Comm. ZnO NPs incorporated films. The lowest percent (9.6%) increase in total soluble solids was observed in fruits packaged with Comm. AgNPs incorporated film. The microbial counts on fruits surface was highest in unpackaged control treatment and lowest in fruits packaged with Comm. AgNPs. The Scanning EM study of the peach fruit surface showed the presence and adherence of microbial cells (bacteria, yeast and fungi) on the trichomes and fruit surface.

Microbial diversity is microbial species richness and evenness in a given niche at particular time. Microbes represent richest diversity including members which may be cultured or cannot be cultured on defined media. Accurate identification and characterization of both culturable and unculturable microbes require employing diverse phenetic, molecular, and system biology tools. However, certain advanced molecular approaches not only unravel microbial diversity but also the microbial community structure and functions performed by specific group or genera of microbes. Molecular toolbox is instrumental in deciphering unculturable microbial diversity paving toward discovery of new genera or species. Molecular microbial ecology has increased our understanding of the role and phylogeny of several bacterial populations, their interdependencies, and functional networks with other genera/species. These include nucleic acid hybridization methods evolving to high throughput, automated, and versatile gene amplification and marker-assisted selection methods like RFLP, r-DNA profiling, nif H gene profiling, and FISH that aim to investigate community diversity using specific signature gene sequences. Today, brigade of novel techniques like single cell microecophysiology are available which can be useful for directly observing as well as quantifying the metabolic activities of microbes in their natural environment. These techniques would further enhance our understanding of relative contribution of various microbial groups to specific microbially catalyzed processes such as biogeochemical cycling (nitrogen fixation).

Mycorrhizal fungi are relevant members of the rhizosphere mutualistic microsymbiont populations that provide a direct physical link between soil and plant roots to increase soil nutrient exploitation and transfer of minerals to the root due to symbiotic association with higher plants. These include several types such as external mantle or sheath forming ectomycorrhiza, ectendomycorrhiza, and the very popular endomycorrhiza or arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Piriformospora indica is an endophytic fungus that exhibits AM fungus-like properties and potentials. This chapter reviews the past and present status of P. indica, its taxonomical hierarchy, molecular characteristics, and diverse applications as biotization, biocontrol, plant probiotic, and plant growth-promoting agent.

Modern era is witnessing versatile application and utilization of prophecies, processes, and products of sustainable agriculture that pose minimum or negligible negative impacts on environment. Use of microorganisms for curbing the attack of plant pathogenic organisms/pests forms the foremost limb of integrated pest management and is responsible for either imparting induced systemic resistance or improving the general health of the inoculated plant due to enhanced nutrient acquisition/nutrient availability, thereby increasing the chances of survival, growth, and development of plant. Biological control utilizes natural enemies such as parasites, predators, pathogens, or competitors, deriving its energy directly from the pests themselves. It would be a useful technology that could suffice the existing arsenal of chemical pesticides or may exclude the latter in the coming years.