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The saliva of blood sucking arthropods contains a number of pharmacologically active compounds that induce an antibody response in exposed human individuals. The objectives of the present study were (i) to assess the human IgG response directed against salivary antigens of Glossina palpalis gambiensis, the main vector of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in West Africa, as a biomarker of human-tsetse contacts; and (ii) to identify specific salivary antigens. Immune reactivity of human plasma collected within active human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) foci (coastal Guinea), historical foci where tsetse flies are still present (South-West Burkina Faso) and a tsetse free area (Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso), was measured by ELISA against whole saliva extracts. In the active HAT foci and areas where tsetse flies were present in high densities, specific IgG responses were significantly higher (p < 0.0001) to those in Bobo-Dioulasso or in Loropeni, where tsetse flies were either absent or only present at low densities. Furthermore, 2D-electrophoresis combined with mass spectrometry enabled to reveal that several antigens were specifically recognized by plasma from exposed individuals. Among them, four salivary proteins were successfully identified (Ada, 5'Nuc, Ag5 and Tsgf1). These results represent a first attempt to identify Glossina salivary proteins or synthetic peptides to develop a standardized and specific biomarker of tsetse exposure in West Africa., (Copyright © 2013 Institut Pasteur. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this paper was to describe recent data from Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire on Human African Trypanosomosis medical monitoring in order to (i) update the disease situation in these two countries that have been sharing important migratory, economic and epidemiological links for more than a century and (ii) to define the future strategic plans to achieve the goal of a sustainable control/elimination process. Results of active and passive surveillance indicate that all sleeping sickness patients diagnosed these last years in Burkina Faso were imported cases from Côte d'Ivoire. Nevertheless the re-introduction of the parasite is effective and the risk of a resumption of transmission exists. In Côte d'Ivoire, few cases are still diagnosed in several historical foci and the fear exists that the disease could reemerge in these foci or spread to other areas. In order to achieve a sustainable elimination of sleeping sickness in these two countries, control entities have to adapt their strategy to the different epidemiological contexts. At the exception of specific cases, the current disease prevalence no longer justifies the use of expensive medical surveys by exhaustive screening of the population. New disease control strategies, based on the exchange of epidemiological information between the two countries and integrated to the regular national health systems are required to target priority intervention areas. Follow-up in time of both treated patients and serological suspects that are potential asymptomatic carriers of parasite is also important. In parallel, researchers need to better characterize the respective roles of the human and animal reservoir in the maintenance of transmission and evaluate the different control strategies taken by National Control Programs in term of cost/effectiveness to help optimize them.

Tsetse flies are the vectors of human and animal trypanosomiases. For tsetse eradication programs, it is crucial to be able to identify and target isolated populations, because they can be targeted for eradication without risk of reinvasion. However, most data that are available on non-isolated populations fail to find how these populations are locally structured, because Wahlund effect (admixture of individuals from genetically different units) always interfere with interpretations. In this paper, we investigated the genetic population structure of a possibly isolated population of Glossina palpalis gambiensis in a sacred wood in South Burkina Faso, using microsatellite DNA markers. We found that genotypic proportions in this population were in agreement with random mating model and that these tsetse were genetically highly differentiated from other populations of the same Mouhoun river basin only a few kilometers away, confirming its genetic isolation. The population also displayed substantial temporal differentiation in a two years period that lead to an estimate of effective population size of ∼100 individuals. The fact that no Wahlund effect was identified allowed us to accurately measure the basic genetic parameters of this isolated population. Identifying such isolated and small populations is crucial for eradication programs and should be implemented more often., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) in West Africa is a lethal, neglected disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense transmitted by the tsetse Glossina palpalis gambiensis. Although the littoral part of Guinea with its typical mangrove habitat is the most prevalent area in West Africa, very few data are available on the epidemiology of the disease in such biotopes. As part of a HAT elimination project in Guinea, we carried a cross-sectional study of the distribution and abundance of people, livestock, tsetse and trypanosomes in the focus of Boffa. An exhaustive census of the human population was done, together with spatial mapping of the area. Entomological data were collected, a human medical survey was organized together with a survey in domestic animals. In total, 45 HAT cases were detected out of 14445 people who attended the survey, these latter representing 50.9% of the total population. Potential additional carriers of T. b. gambiense were also identified by the trypanolysis test (14 human subjects and two domestic animals). No trypanosome pathogenic to animals were found, neither in the 874 tsetse dissected nor in the 300 domestic animals sampled. High densities of tsetse were found in places frequented by humans, such as pirogue jetties, narrow mangrove channels and watering points. The prevalence of T. b. gambiense in humans, combined to low attendance of the population at risk to medical surveys, and to an additional proportion of human and animal carriers of T. b. gambiense who are not treated, highlights the limits of strategies targeting HAT patients only. In order to stop T. b. gambiense transmission, vector control should be added to the current strategy of case detection and treatment. Such an integrated strategy will combine medical surveillance to find and treat cases, and vector control activities to protect people from the infective bites of tsetse.

At a time when human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) elimination again seems a reachable goal in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, it is becoming increasingly important to characterise the factors involved in disease resurgence or maintenance to develop sustainable control strategies. In this study conducted in the Forecariah mangrove focus in Guinea, HAT patients and serological suspects (SERO) were identified through mass screening of the population with the Card Agglutination Test for Trypanosomiasis (CATT) and were followed up for up to 2 years. Analysis of the samples collected during the follow-up of HAT patients and SERO was performed with PCR (TBR1/TBR2) and the trypanolysis serological test (TL) in order to clarify the role played by these individuals in the epidemiology of HAT. PCR positivity was higher in TL⁺ than in SERO TL⁻ (50% vs. 18%, respectively). Whereas CATT plasma titres decreased both in treated HAT patients and SERO TL⁻, SERO TL⁺ maintained high CATT titres. Four out of 17 SERO TL⁺ developed HAT during the study. These results strongly suggest that SERO TL⁺ individuals are asymptomatic carriers. In the context where disease prevalence is sufficiently low, treating SERO TL⁺ individual may thus be of crucial importance in order to cut transmission., (Copyright © 2011 Institut Pasteur. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Background: The tsetse fly Glossina palpalis gambiensis is the main vector of sleeping sickness (Human African Trypanosomiasis - HAT) in West Africa, in particular in littoral Guinea where this disease is currently very active. The Loos islands constitute a small archipelago some 5 km from mainland Guinea, where G. p. gambiensis is well known as a nuisance and potential disease vector by inhabitants of the three main islands, Fotoba, Room, and Kassa. The National Control Program against HAT of Guinea has decided to eradicate tsetse in Loos islands in order to sustainably protect humans and economic activities. After baseline data collection, tsetse control began on the islands in 2006. On each of the three islands a specific combination of control methods was implemented according to the entomological situation found., Results: Starting densities before control operations were 10, 3 and 1 tsetse/trap/day in Kassa, Room and Fotoba respectively, but by July 2010, tsetse were no longer caught in any of the sentinel traps used for monitoring. The reduction rate was faster where several control methods were implemented as a combination (impregnated traps and targets ITT, selective groundspraying, epicutaneous insecticide treatment of pigs, and impregnated fences around pig pens), whereas it was slower when ITT were used as the only control method., Conclusions: This 100% suppression is a promising step in the eradication process, but G. p. gambiensis may still occur at very low, undetectable, densities on the archipelago. Next step will consist in assessing a 0.05 probability of tsetse absence to ascertain a provisional eradication status. Throughout these operations, a key factor has been the involvement of local teams and local communities without whom such results would be impossible to obtain. Work will continue thanks to the partners involved until total eradication of the tsetse on Loos islands can be declared.

In the brain, 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine, which binds to the thyroid hormone receptor with high affinity, is locally generated from thyroxine by type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase (D2) expressed mainly in astrocytes and tanycytes. We have investigated the effects of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on D2 in cultured rat astrocytes. LPS induced D2 activity with a lag-time of 4-8 h and a maximum at 24 h. LPS also promoted D2 mRNA accumulation. Glucocorticoids enhanced both the basal and LPS-stimulated D2 activity and mRNA accumulation. These glucocorticoid effects were blocked by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU486. Our results obtained with different specific signaling pathway inhibitors indicated that D2 induction by LPS required ERK and p38-MAPK signaling pathways. NF-κB inhibitor sulfasalazine blocked the effects of LPS on both D2 activity and mRNA accumulation. Hence, D2 induction by LPS appeared to implicate NF-κB pathway in astrocytes. NF-κB responsiveness of the rat dio2 gene was studied in astrocytes with dio2 5'-flanking region promoter assays. The long form of the dio2 promoter was transactivated by NF-κB. CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β, which is upregulated by LPS in astrocytes, increased the transcriptional activity of the dio2 promoter in its long or truncated forms containing CCAATs. Our observations, which demonstrate D2 induction by LPS in astrocytes and specify some characteristics of D2 induction mechanism, support the possible implication of brain D2 in adaptative responses to an infectious stress.

Background: Because of its high sensitivity and its ease of use in the field, the card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis (CATT) is widely used for mass screening of sleeping sickness. However, the CATT exhibits false-positive results (i) raising the question of whether CATT-positive subjects who are negative in parasitology are truly exposed to infection and (ii) making it difficult to evaluate whether Trypanosoma brucei (T.b.) gambiense is still circulating in areas of low endemicity. The objective of this study was to assess the value of the immune trypanolysis test (TL) in characterising the HAT status of CATT-positive subjects and to monitor HAT elimination in West Africa., Methodology/principal Findings: TL was performed on plasma collected from CATT-positive persons identified within medical surveys in several West African HAT foci in Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso with diverse epidemiological statuses (active, latent, or historical). All HAT cases were TL+. All subjects living in a nonendemic area were TL-. CATT prevalence was not correlated with HAT prevalence in the study areas, whereas a significant correlation was found using TL., Conclusion and Significance: TL appears to be a marker for contact with T.b. gambiense. TL can be a tool (i) at an individual level to identify nonparasitologically confirmed CATT-positive subjects as well as those who had contact with T.b. gambiense and should be followed up, (ii) at a population level to identify priority areas for intervention, and (iii) in the context of HAT elimination to identify areas free of HAT.

Following the sociopolitical unrest that occurred in Ivory Coast in 2002, 360,000 Burkinabe immigrants returned to Burkina Faso that was the epicenter of sleeping sickness last century and is now thought to be free of autochthonous transmission. The purpose of this study was to determine if the massive return of immigrants from human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) endemic areas of Ivory Coast to areas in Burkina Faso where the vector (tsetse fly) is currently present could lead to re-emergence of the disease. Risk areas for re-emergence were identified taking into account the number of returning immigrants, history of the disease, and presence of tsetse flies. Based on these criteria, study was focused on two villages, i.e., Folonzo and Gbalara, located in southern Burkina Faso near the Ivory Coast border. Study in these two villages consisted of characterization of the population (repatriates or not, origin, ...) and medical surveys to assess the presence/absence of the disease. Departure of some returning immigrants from areas including sleeping sickness foci in Ivory Coast (e.g. center west) confirmed the potential risk of re-emergence of the disease. Although no case of sleeping sickness was diagnosed, several serologically positive people were identified and will be followed up. This study failed to demonstrate a clear-cut correlation between massive population movements due to war and reemergence of sleeping sickness. However, this study may have been timed too soon after the return of immigrants to detect reemergence of HAT that could require several years.

Background: Following World Health Assembly resolutions 50.36 in 1997 and 56.7 in 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) committed itself to supporting human African trypanosomiasis (HAT)-endemic countries in their efforts to remove the disease as a public health problem. Mapping the distribution of HAT in time and space has a pivotal role to play if this objective is to be met. For this reason WHO launched the HAT Atlas initiative, jointly implemented with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, in the framework of the Programme Against African Trypanosomosis., Results: The distribution of HAT is presented for 23 out of 25 sub-Saharan countries having reported on the status of sleeping sickness in the period 2000-2009. For the two remaining countries, i.e. Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, data processing is ongoing. Reports by National Sleeping Sickness Control Programmes (NSSCPs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Research Institutes were collated and the relevant epidemiological data were entered in a database, thus incorporating (i) the results of active screening of over 2.2 million people, and (ii) cases detected in health care facilities engaged in passive surveillance. A total of over 42 000 cases of HAT and 6 000 different localities were included in the database. Various sources of geographic coordinates were used to locate the villages of epidemiological interest. The resulting average mapping accuracy is estimated at 900 m., Conclusions: Full involvement of NSSCPs, NGOs and Research Institutes in building the Atlas of HAT contributes to the efficiency of the mapping process and it assures both the quality of the collated information and the accuracy of the outputs. Although efforts are still needed to reduce the number of undetected and unreported cases, the comprehensive, village-level mapping of HAT control activities over a ten-year period ensures a detailed and reliable representation of the known geographic distribution of the disease. Not only does the Atlas serve research and advocacy, but, more importantly, it provides crucial evidence and a valuable tool for making informed decisions to plan and monitor the control of sleeping sickness.

Thyroid hormones are critical determinants of cellular differentiation. We used the zebrafish model to evaluate the involvement of thyroid hormones in regeneration processes after caudal fin amputation. We examined early events following fin amputation, i.e., blastema formation and nerve repair by growth cone formation. Here, we show that the abolition of thyroid gland activity by methimazole treatment had no effect on blastema formation, but slowed growth cone formation of the lateral line. Conversely, the addition of exogenous thyroid hormones enhanced growth cone formation without affecting blastema formation. However, amputation triggered a strong induction in the blastema of type 3 deiodinase mRNA and enzymatic activity, which degrades thyroid hormone (TH). We therefore blocked deiodinase activity with iopanoic acid (IOP) and saw a reduction in blastema formation, suggesting that local degradation of TH is permissive for cell proliferation in the blastema. The effect of IOP on the blastema required endogenous or exogenous TH. Our findings support a model in which local degradation of TH by type 3 deiodinase is permissive for epimorphic regeneration., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

During childhood, the thyroid gland is one of the most sensitive organs to the carcinogenetic effects of ionizing radiation that may lead to papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) associated with RET/PTC oncogene rearrangement. Exposure to ionizing radiation induces a transient "oxidative burst" through radiolysis of water, which can cause DNA damage and mediates part of the radiation effects. H(2)O(2) is a potent DNA-damaging agent that induces DNA double-strand breaks, and consequently, chromosomal aberrations. Irradiation by 5 Gy X-ray increased extracellular H(2)O(2). Therefore, we investigated the implication of H(2)O(2) in the generation of RET/PTC1 rearrangement after X-ray exposure. We developed a highly specific and sensitive nested reverse transcription-PCR method. By using the human thyroid cell line HTori-3, previously found to produce RET/PTC1 after gamma-irradiation, we showed that H(2)O(2), generated during a 5 Gy X-ray irradiation, causes DNA double-strand breaks and contributes to RET/PTC1 formation. Pretreatment of cells with catalase, a scavenger of H(2)O(2), significantly decreased RET/PTC1 rearrangement formation. Finally, RET/PTC chromosomal rearrangement was detected in HTori-3.1 cells after exposure of cells to H(2)O(2) (25 micromol/L), at a dose that did not affect the cell viability. This study shows for the first time that H(2)O(2) is able to cause RET/PTC1 rearrangement in thyroid cells and consequently highlights that oxidative stress could be responsible for the occurrence of RET/PTC1 rearrangement found in thyroid lesions even in the absence of radiation exposure., ((c)2010 AACR.)

The northern distribution limit of tsetse flies was updated in Burkina Faso and compared to previous limits to revise the existing map of these vectors of African trypanosomiases dating from several decades ago. From 1949 to 2009, a 25- to 150-km shift has appeared toward the south. Tsetse are now discontinuously distributed in Burkina Faso with a western and an eastern tsetse belt. This range shift can be explained by a combination of decreased rainfall and increased human density. Within a context of international control, this study provides a better understanding of the factors influencing the distribution of tsetse flies.

Demographic evolution, climatic change and economical development that happened in West Africa during the XXth century had a lot of consequences on human settlement and landscape. These changes have in turn an impact on the pathogenic system of human and animal trypanosomoses. Since last century, the northern tsetse distribution limit has shifted towards the south, probably due to a decrease in rainfall combined to the impact of human pressure. Sleeping sickness (SS) foci have also shifted from the savannah areas (where there is no more SS) to the forest and mangrove areas of West Africa, but animal trypanosomoses are still present in savannah. We show a decrease of tsetse of the morsitans group as a result of an increase of human densities. On the opposite, tsetse species like Glossina palpalis adapt to high human densities and are found in the biggest urban centres of West Africa. There is a need to promote multidisciplinary studies on this demographic-climatic-vector borne disease topic, especially in Africa to be able to define future areas of presence/absence of these diseases in order to help continental plans of control that have recently begun.

Type 2 deiodinase (D2) and type 3 deiodinase (D3) locally achieve the determination of the concentration of T3, which binds to the thyroid hormone receptor with high affinity. D2 converts T4 into T3, and D3 degrades T4 and T3. Neurons take up T3 released by astrocytes, the main cerebral site for the D2 expression. Because oxidative stress is believed to be involved in several neurological disorders, we explored the effects of oxidative stress on D3 and D2 in primary culture of rat astrocytes. H2O2 (250 microm) increased D3 activity with maximal effects around 8 h. Stimulation of D3 activity by H2O2 was synergistic with T4, phorbol ester, and also cAMP. H2O2 (250 microm) did not affect basal D2 activity but inhibited the stimulation of D2 activity by cAMP and factors implicating cAMP-independent pathways in astrocytes, TSH, and phorbol ester. N-Acetyl cysteine and selenium repletion, which respectively increase intracellular glutathione and glutathione peroxidase, inhibited D2 and D3 regulation by H2O2, whereas L-buthionine sulfoximine, which decreases intracellular glutathione, mimicked H2O2 effects. Oxidative stress up-regulated D3 and inhibited cAMP-stimulated D2 by transcriptional mechanisms. A decrease in cAMP by oxidative stress could contribute to the inhibition of cAMP-stimulated D2. Using specific inhibitors of signaling pathways, we show that the ERK pathway was required in D2 and D3 regulation by oxidative stress and that the p38 MAPK pathway was implicated in H2O2-induced D3. We suggest that the expected decrease in T3 might modulate the cellular injury of oxidative stress in some pathological brain conditions.

This paper summarizes the geography of sleeping sickness disease (or Human African Trypanosomiasis, HAT) over the last 100 years in West Africa, with the objective of identifying today's priority areas for the sleeping sickness surveillance. The history and geography of the disease are based on a bibliographic review of old reports and recent publications on recent results obtained from medical surveys conducted in West Africa up to 2007. This allowed us to situate the historical geography of HAT from the beginning of the 20th century to nowadays. For instance, active HAT foci seem to have moved from the North (savannah area) to the South (forest area) in the last century. Taking into account the limited nature of the information available, endemic HAT presently appears to be limited to areas where annual rainfall is higher than 1,200 mm, although the reasons for this remain unknown. During this period of time there has also been a shift towards the south of the isohyets and of the northern distribution limit of tsetse. Currently the most severely affected countries are Guinea and Ivory Coast, whereas the northern countries seem less affected, but many parts of West Africa still lack information on HAT and remain to be investigated. These observations, put back in the current context of demographic growth and climatic global change, responsible for landscape evolution, political instability and population movements, raise the question of HAT becoming.

T(4) activation into T(3) is catalyzed by type 2 deiodinase (D2) in the brain. The rapid induction of D2 in astrocytes by transient brain ischemia has prompted us to explore the effects of hypoxia on D2 in cultures of astrocytes. Hypoxia (2.5% O(2)) of cultured astrocytes increased D2 activity, alone or in association with agents stimulating the cAMP pathway. Hypoxia had no effect on D2 mRNA accumulation. Cycloheximide did not block the effect of hypoxia on D2 activity and D2 half-life was enhanced under hypoxia demonstrating a posttranslational action of hypoxia. Furthermore, the D2 activity increase by hypoxia was not additive with the increase promoted by the proteasome inhibitor carbobenzoxy-L-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-leucinal (MG132). This strongly suggests that hypoxia leads to stabilization of D2 by slowing its degradation by the proteasome pathway. Hypoxia, in contrast to MG132, did not block the T(4)-induced D2 inactivation. A contribution of prolyl hydroxylase to the hypoxia effects on D2 was also suggested on the basis of increased D2 activity after addition of different prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors (cobalt chloride, desferrioxamine, dimethyloxalylglycine, dimethylsuccinate). Specific inhibitors of ERK, p38 MAPK, or phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathways were without any effect on hypoxia-increased D2 activity, eliminating their role in the effects of hypoxia. Interestingly, diphenyleneiodonium, an inhibitor of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase inhibited the hypoxia-increased D2 indicating a role for some reactive oxygen species in the mechanism of D2 increase. Further studies are required to clarify the precise molecular mechanisms involved in the D2 stabilization by hypoxia.

A 2-year-old, 4 kg, healthy, domestic shorthair female cat presented with ulcerated subcutaneous nodules on the commissures of its mouth. The cat was negative for feline leukaemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus. Skin mycobacteriosis was diagnosed after detection of numerous acid-fast bacilli in Ziehl Neelsen-stained smears from the ulcers. Feline leprosy was suspected following preliminary polymerase chain reaction results: positive for Mycobacterium genus but negative for Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium complexes. Mycobacterium lepraemurium was later identified following DNA sequence analysis of the 5' end of the 16S rRNA gene and the 16S-23S internal transcribed spacer region. Microscopic lesions consisted of pyogranulomas containing mainly large foamy macrophages with 10-100 intra-cellular acid-fast bacilli per field. The cat was cured after surgery and a 14-week course of clofazimine (30 mg daily) and clarithromycin (50 mg twice daily).

The human iodotyrosine dehalogenase 1 (DEHAL1) gene is composed of six exons. Two isoforms (DEHAL1 and DEHAL1B) have been published in GenBank, both of which have a nitroreductase domain and arise from differential splicing in exon 5. We recently showed that the DEHAL1 isoform is a transmembrane protein that efficiently catalyzes the NADPH-dependent deiodination of mono (L-MIT) and diiodotyrosine (L-DIT) in human embryonic kidney-293 (HEK293) cells. In the present study, we establish the existence of a new transcript, DEHAL1C, in the human thyroid with a terminal exon that lacks in the DEHAL1 transcript. This exon is the complete exon 5, which is spliced in the DEHAL1B mRNA variant. These two variants encode proteins with differing C-terminal domains. Using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, we found that the expression of the mRNA of DEHAL1C and DEHAL1B was lower than that of DEHAL1 mRNA in the thyroid. We also observed that human DEHAL1B and DEHAL1C proteins are rapidly degraded in stably transfected HEK293 cells, unlike the DEHAL1 protein, and that exposure to the proteasome inhibitor MG132 resulted in accumulation of these proteins that was markedly time- and concentration-dependent. These findings show that the cytoplasmic tail could play a role in the stability of the protein.

Background: This study aimed at identifying factors influencing the development of Human African Trypanosomosis (HAT, or sleeping sickness) in the focus of Bonon, located in the mesophile forest of Côte d'Ivoire. A previous study mapping the main daytime activity sites of 96 patients revealed an important disparity between the area south of the town- where all the patients lived- and the area north of the town, apparently free of disease. In order to explain this disparity, we carried out a spatial analysis of the key components of the pathogenic system, i.e. the human host, the tsetse vector and the trypanosomes in their environment using a geographic information system (GIS)., Results: This approach at the scale of a HAT focus enabled us to identify spatial patterns which linked to the transmission and the dissemination of this disease. The history of human settlement (with the rural northern area exploited much earlier than the southern one) appears to be a major factor which determines the land use pattern, which itself may account for differences found in vector densities (tsetse were found six times more abundant in the southern rural area than in the northern). Vector density, according to the human and environmental context in which it is found (here an intense mobility between the town of Bonon and the rural areas), may explain the observed spatial differences in HAT prevalence., Conclusion: This work demonstrates the role of GIS analyses of key components of the pathogenic system in providing a better understanding of transmission and dissemination of HAT. Moreover, following the identification of the most active transmission areas, and of an area unfavourable to HAT transmission, this study more precisely delineates the boundaries of the Bonon focus. As a follow-up, targeted tsetse control activities starting north of Bonon (with few chances of reinvasion due to very low densities) going south, and additional medical surveys in the south will be proposed to the Ivoirian HAT control program to enhance the control of the disease in this focus. This work also shows the evolution of HAT regarding time and environment, and the methodology used may be able to predict possible sleeping sickness development/extinction in areas with similar history and space organization.

Thyroid hormones play a critical role in development and functioning of the nervous system. Deiodinases (type 2 [D2] and type 3 [D3]) contribute to the control of thyroid hormone action in the nervous system by regulating the local concentrations of triiodothyronine (T(3)), the main active thyroid hormone. Most brain T(3) is indeed locally formed by deiodination of thyroxine (T(4)). This reaction is catalyzed by D2 expressed in astrocytes throughout the brain and in tanycytes in the mediobasal hypothalamus. D3, which inactivates both T(4) and T(3), is mainly expressed in neurons also throughout the brain, with high expression in hippocampus and pyriform cortex. The regulation of deiodinases by many factors in addition to the thyroid hormones indicate that their role is not limited to mitigate the fluctuations in plasma T(4) and T(3). In contrast to the brain, deiodinases are not expressed in the adult peripheral nerve. Nerve lesions induce D2 in peripheral nerve sheaths and D3 in the endoneurial compartment containing Schwann cells. On the basis of available data summarized in this review, D2 and D3 clearly contribute to determine T(3) concentrations depending on the area of the nervous system, the state of development, and the pathophysiologic conditions.

This study investigated the expression of deiodinases of thyroid hormones in the rat brain after transient occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. The activity of type 2 deiodinase (D2), which catalyzes the deiodination of thyroxine into the more active thyroid hormone 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine, was strongly increased by cerebral ischemia at 6 and 24 hours in the striatum and at 24 hours in the cerebral cortex. The activity of type 3 deiodinase, which catalyzes the inactivation of thyroid hormones, was not affected by ischemia. In situ hybridization showed, as soon as 6 hours, an upregulation of the expression of D2 mRNA in the ipsilateral striatum, which disappeared at 24 hours. In the ipsilateral cortex, the induction of D2 mRNA started at 6 hours, was increased at 24 hours and finally declined at 72 hours. These results were confirmed by reverse transcription-PCR for D2 mRNA in the striatum and cerebral cortex. The upregulation of D2 mRNA after ischemia was mainly localized in astrocytic cell bodies. These results show that D2 is rapidly induced in astrocytes after ischemic stroke. Future work will include the exploration of the role of the upregulation of this enzyme, responsible for local 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine production as a neuroprotective mechanism in the brain.

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a vector-borne parasitic disease which has often been considered a rural disease. Population increases in African countries have entailed the spread of urban centres, creating favourable conditions for the appearance of new epidemiological conditions. In Cote d'Ivoire, HAT transmission has been described in the surroundings of towns such as Daloa or Sinfra. In the focus of Bonon, located in central-western Cote d'Ivoire, a medical survey detected 96 patients. The sites visited by the patients every day were geo-referenced and the routes between them recorded. In parallel, an entomological survey of the patients' daily locations enabled the collection of data on the vector. In Bonon, we observed urban cases and tsetse (Glossina palpalis) feeding on men. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense was identified in both man and vector; thus all conditions for possible intra-urban trypanosomosis transmission were met. The consequences of this are discussed regarding the problem of diffusion of the disease.

In the thyroid, iodotyrosine dehalogenase acts on the mono and diiodotyrosines released during the hydrolysis of thyroglobulin to liberate iodide, which can then reenter the hormone-producing pathways. It has been reported that the deiodination of iodotyrosines occurs predominantly in the microsomes and is mediated by NADPH. Recently, two cDNAs, 7401- and 7513-base pairs long that encode proteins with a conserved nitroreductase domain were published in GenBank as iodotyrosine dehalogenase 1 (DEHAL1) and iodotyrosine dehalogenase 1B (DEHAL1B), respectively. We report here our investigation of the localization and activity of one of these isoforms, DEHAL1. DEHAL1 mRNA is highly expressed in the thyroid, is up-regulated by cAMP, and encodes a transmembrane protein that efficiently catalyzes the NADPH-dependent deiodination of mono (L-MIT) and diiodotyrosine (L-DIT), with greater activity vs. L-MIT. Iodotyrosine deiodinase was active in HEK293 cells transfected by DEHAL1 cDNA, but not in CHO cells. A fraction of DEHAL1 protein is exposed to the cell surface, as indicated by biotinylation experiments. Immunohistochemistry studies showed that DEHAL1 proteins accumulate at the apical pole of thyrocytes. Taken together, these findings indicate that the deiodination reaction occurs at the apical pole of the thyrocyte and is involved in a rapid iodide recycling process at and/or close to the organification site.

Chronic treatments with antidepressants active on major depressive disorders influence pathways involved in cell survival and plasticity. As astrocytes seem to play a key role in the protection of brain cells, we investigated in these cells the rapid effects of the antidepressant fluoxetine (Prozac) on signaling cascades and gene induction, which probably play a role in neuroprotection. We show here that fluoxetine alone activates the extracellular signal-regulated-protein kinase (Erk) and p38 mitogen-associated protein (MAP) kinase cascades. RT-PCR revealed that genes, modulated in brain by long-term fluoxetine treatment, are rapidly induced by fluoxetine in cultured astrocytes: brain-derived nerve factor (BDNF) and its receptors, glial-derived nerve factor (GDNF) and deiodinase 3 (D3). Induction of D3 by fluoxetine is inhibited by U0126 and SB203580, suggesting that Erk and p38 MAP kinases are involved. Glial-derived nerve factor (GDNF) induction by fluoxetine is prevented by U0126, suggesting that Erk is implicated. Brain-derived nerve factor (BDNF) induction seems mediated by other signaling pathways. In conclusion, we show that fluoxetine alone rapidly activates mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinase cascades in rat astrocytes and that genes involved in neuroprotection are induced in a few hours in a MAP kinase-dependent or -independent manner.

Thyroid hormones are essential for the development and repair of the peripheral nervous system. The type 2 deiodinase, which is responsible for the activation of T(4) into T(3), is induced in injured sciatic nerve. To obtain information on the type 3 deiodinase (D3) responsible for the degradation of thyroid hormones, we looked for its expression (mRNA and activity) in the sciatic nerve after injury. D3 was undetectable in the intact sciatic nerve of adult rats, but was rapidly and highly increased in the distal and proximal segments after nerve lesion. After cryolesion, D3 up-regulation disappeared after 3 d in the proximal segment, whereas it was sustained for 10 d in the distal segment, then declined to reach basal levels after 28 d, when functional recovery was completed. After a transsection preventing the nerve regeneration, up-regulation of D3 persisted up to 28 d at high levels in the distal segment. D3 was expressed in peripheral connective sheaths and in the internal endoneural compartment. D3 mRNA was inducible by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in cultured fibroblasts or Schwann cells. In conclusion, induction of D3 in the peripheral nervous system after injury may play an important role during the regeneration process by adjusting intracellular T(3) levels.

The type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase (D3) metabolizes thyroid hormones to inactive metabolites in many tissues, including the brain. In the present studies, we have examined the mechanisms by which T3 (T3), retinoic acid, 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol 13-acetate (TPA), and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) induce D3 expression in primary cultures of neonatal rat astrocytes. In untreated cells, D3 messenger RNA (mRNA) was essentially undetectable by Northern analysis and RT-PCR. However, all four agents induced expression of a 2.4-kb D3 transcript as well as D3 activity. Induction of D3 by TPA and bFGF was more rapid than that by T3 and retinoic acid, and T3 potentiated the stimulatory effects of TPA and bFGF. D3 induction by TPA was blocked by GF 109203X, an inhibitor of protein kinase C. In addition, the effects of TPA and bFGF were partially prevented by PD 98059, a specific inhibitor of MEK and the Erk signaling cascade. These studies demonstrate that multiple growth factors and hormones regulate D3 activity in cultured astrocytes by inducing D3 mRNA expression. In addition, the stimulatory effects of TPA and bFGF on D3 mRNA and activity appear to be mediated at least in part by activation of the MEK/Erk signaling cascade.

Thyroid hormones and retinoic acid (RA) are important modulators of growth, development, and differentiation. Type III deiodinase (D-III), which catalyzes thyroid hormones degradation in the brain and in cultured astroglial cells, is induced in astroglial cells by multiple pathways, including cAMP, 12.0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), fibroblast growth factors, and thyroid hormones themselves. In the present study, the effects of retinoids on D-III activity were examined in astroglial cells cultures in a chemically defined medium devoid of hormones and growth factors. Incubation of astroglial cells with 5 microM all-trans-RA caused up to 200-fold increase in D-III activity, which reached a plateau after 48 h. The retinoid-induced increase in D-III activity was concentration dependent (0.5 microM all-trans-RA and 9-cis-RA producing half-maximal effect). Retinol was effective at physiological concentrations (1 and 10 microM). The 48 h effects of 5 microM all-trans-RA and 10 nM thyroid hormones on D-III activity were at least additive. Addition of 2 nM acidic fibroblast growth factor or 1 mM 8-bromo-cAMP for the last 8 h of a 48 h incubation with 5 microM all-trans-RA did not alter the induction by all-trans-RA, whereas 0.1 microM TPA in the same conditions produced an additive effect with all-trans-RA. All-trans-RA (5 microM) had little or no effect on type II deiodinase, the enzyme which catalyzes the activation of thyroxine to 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Type II 5'-deiodinase (D-II) catalyzes the intracellular conversion of thyroxine (T4) to 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) in the brain. The D-II activity in astroglial cell cultures is induced by several pathways including cyclic AMP (cAMP), 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), and fibroblast growth factors (FGFs). We have examined the effect of TPA and FGFs on the 30-kDa substrate binding subunit of D-II, by affinity labeling with N-bromoacetyl-[125I]T4 in astroglial cells. TPA (0.1 microM), 20 ng/ml acidic FGF (aFGF), and 1 mM 8-bromo cyclic AMP all caused an increase in the 30-kDa protein. cAMP induced the greatest increase (fivefold) followed by TPA (3.2-fold) and FGF (2.8-fold). Glucocorticoids acted synergistically with cAMP and aFGF and promoted the effect of TPA. Affinity labeling was competitively inhibited by bromoacetyl-T4 > bromoacetyl-T3 > T4 > reverse T3 > iopanoic acid > T3 > 3,5,3'-triiodothyroacetic acid. The effect of TPA (0.1 microM) was maximum at 8 h and then gradually decreased. aFGF (20 ng/ml) plus heparin (17 micrograms/ml) induced a maximal 30-kDa increase at 8 h, which stayed stable for up to 24 h. The effect of aFGF was concentration dependent. Of the other growth factors studied, only basic FGF and platelet-derived growth factor induced small increases in the 30-kDa protein. Epidermal growth factor had little effect. In vitro labeling of cAMP, TPA, and aFGF-stimulated cell sonicates resulted in an increase in the 30-kDa protein that paralleled the increase in D-II activity.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Thyroid hormones are essential for normal brain development and function. Brain astroglial cells express type II iodothyronine 5'-deiodinase which converts thyroxine into 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine. This type II deiodinase is regulated through various signalling pathways, allowing probably for the local adaptation of the level of 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine. Our results demonstrated that thyrotropin was able to induce type II deiodinase activity in astrocytes. A thyrotropin receptor was demonstrated. It was not coupled, as in thyroid, to adenylyl cyclase and phospholipase C, but it stimulated cytosolic phospholipase A2. The stimulation by thyrotropin of both thyroxine synthesis in thyroid and its local activation in astrocytes, could protect the brain from variations in the level of 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine.

Acidic fibroblast growth factor (aFGF) induced a large increase in the type II 5'-deiodinase (5'D) activity in astroglial cells. This required a time lag of about 4 h. Half-maximal stimulation was obtained with about 7 ng/ml aFGF. This factor at 20 ng/ml induced several times more 5'D activity than did 20 ng/ml basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) after 8 h incubation. aFGF (20 ng/ml) produced a 10-50-fold increase in 5'D activity after 24 h, whereas the effect of 20 ng/ml bFGF had disappeared after 24 h. Heparin (17 micrograms/ml) potentiated the 5'D response to natural and recombinant aFGF. Glucocorticoids amplified the aFGF-induction of 5'D activity. This is the first demonstration in astroglial cells that a growth factor can regulate the 5'D activity.

The effects of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF beta 1) on DNA synthesis and functional differentiation of astroglial cells cultured in serum-free medium were investigated. TGF beta 1 diminished and delayed the peak of DNA synthesis induced by serum. TGF beta 1-treated cells were larger than control cells. This factor delayed the appearance of process-bearing cells induced by acidic fibroblast growth factor treatment and also affected the astrocyte-specific enzyme glutamine synthetase (GS), whose accumulation is under hydrocortisone (HC) control. TGF beta 1 inhibited the induction of GS activity by HC in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Moreover, pretreatment with TGF beta 1 for 4 h maintained the inhibition of GS activity for approximately 16 h after removal of this factor from culture medium. These results suggest that TGF beta 1 may be an important regulator of astrocyte growth and differentiation.

The effect of an activator of protein kinase C, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), on the 5'-deiodinase (5'D) activity was studied in rat astroglial cells cultured in chemically defined medium. TPA promoted a large increase in the type II 5'D activity, which was maximal 5-10 h after addition of TPA and then declined to the basal level at 24 h. The optimal TPA concentration was 10(-7) M. TPA and 8-Br-cAMP, an other inducer of 5'D activity were antagonist. Otherwise, TPA stimulated 5'D activity only in the presence of glucocorticoids at concentrations from 10(-8) M to 10(-4) M. Glucocorticoids alone induced a slight increase in 5'D activity. These data indicate that protein kinase C contributes to the control of 5'D activity in astroglial cells and that its action is dependent on glucocorticoids.

The titration by ferrocyanide and the localization of the oxidizing equivalents of lactoperoxidase "compound II" were studied as a function of pH. It was demonstrated that 1) whatever the pH, the structure of lactoperoxidase "compound II" was compatible with a Fe IV R degree state, 2) at acidic pH, ferrocyanide preferentially reduced the oxidizing equivalent localized on the heme iron to give an Fe III R degree compound, 3) at pH 4.2 only the Fe III R degree form was obtained after reduction of lactoperoxidase "compound II" with one mole of ferrocyanide and whereas at pH greater than 4.2, a mixture of both Fe III R degree and Fe IV R forms was present, 4) lowering the pH from 7.2 to 4.0 induced a transition of Fe IV R state to Fe III R degree state, but increasing the pH from 4.0 to 7.2 did not permit the formation of Fe IV R compound from Fe III R degree compound.

The metabolism of thyroxine (T4) by cultures of embryonic-rat brain cells grown in a chemically defined medium was studied. Cells in these cultures were predominantly neurons, characterized by the developmental increase of the binding of [3H]flunitrazepam to the high-affinity (0.67 nM) benzodiazepine neuronal receptors. The cultures also contained astrocytes, characterized by immunological studies using an anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAp) and by the increase in glutamine synthetase (GS). Incubation of the cells, in situ, with 125I-labelled 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) showed the presence of a single class of high-affinity nuclear receptors for T3 with a maximal binding capacity of 270-470 fmol T3/mg DNA and a Kd of 63 +/- 13 pM. Cells incubated in situ with 50 pM [125I]T4 actively metabolized the hormone. The major metabolite, 3,3',5'-triiodothyronine (rT3) (159 +/- 43 fmol/4 h/mg DNA), was almost completely released into the medium. T3 was a minor metabolite (77 +/- 3 fmol/4 h/mg DNA), 75% of which accumulated in the cells. Of this T3, 35% was bound to the nuclear receptors after 4 h of incubation. In vitro assays showed that the 5'-deiodinase activity increased during culture and the 5-deiodinase decreased slightly. Cytosine-arabinoside (ARAc) treatment of the cultures reduced the DNA content per culture dish, corresponding to a fall in the number of GFAp-positive cells (astrocytes) and to a decrease in GS. A small increase in the number of benzodiazepine sites was observed. ARAc treatment markedly reduced the T3 production (14.5 +/- 0.7 fmol/4 h/mg DNA) and did not change the rT3 production. We suggest that T4 is metabolized to T3 in astrocytes, taken up by neurons and binds to their nuclear receptors.

Adult rats who had neonatal hyperthyroidism (NH) have reduced BW and serum T4, T3, and TSH concentrations. Pituitary TSH responses to TRH administration under basal, T4-suppressed, and propylthiouracil-stimulated conditions suggest that the thyrotroph of these animals is more sensitive to the feedback effects of thyroid hormones. These studies were undertaken to examine, with the use of various thyroid hormone-responsive variables, thyroid status of adult NH rats. NH was induced by 12 daily sc injections of T4 (0.4 microgram/g BW) to neonatal male Sprague-Dawley rats. Adult NH and control rats were then studied at 120 days of age. Adult NH rats had significantly decreased mean BW (P less than 0.001), and serum T4 (P less than 0.005), T3 (P less than 0.001), and TSH (P less than 0.001) concentrations. The percent decreases were 12% for T4, 20% for T3, and 27% for TSH in adult NH rats. Mean pituitary GH concentration and hepatic alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase and malic enzyme activities were significantly decreased in adult NH rats to 54% (P less than 0.005), 52% (P less than 0.025), and 39% (P less than 0.001), respectively, of control values. Mean pituitary TSH concentrations were similar in adult NH and control rats. Mean hepatic T4 5'-deiodinase activity of adult NH rats [200 +/- (SE) 23 fmol T3/min X mg protein] was significantly decreased to 56% of control levels (355 +/- 31 fmol T3/min . mg protein; P less than 0.005). Mean pituitary T4 5'-deiodinase activity of adult NH rats (32.8 +/- 3.3 fmol T3/min . mg protein) was significantly increased compared with that of control rats (21.2 +/- 1.7 fmol T3/min . mg protein; P less than 0.025). These changes are consistent with a hypothyroid state in adult NH rats. The observation of decreased serum TSH concentration and enhanced thyrotroph sensitivity to thyroid hormones in the face of increased pituitary T4 5'-deiodinase activity suggests that increased thyrotroph monodeiodination of T4 may be the central biochemical aberration responsible for the hypothyroid state in adult NH rats.

Cultured astroglial cells were found to contain a type II 5'-deiodinase (5'D) activity which was increased by 10(-3) M (Bu)2cAMP but not by 2 X 10(-3) M n-butyrate. 8-Bromo-cAMP (8-Br-cAMP) (10(-3) M) also increased this enzyme activity. Cycloheximide (2 micrograms/ml) inhibited the 8-Br-cAMP effect on 5'D activity. Forskolin (10(-5) M), cholera toxin (5 micrograms/ml), 10(-5) M isoproterenol, and 3 X 10(-6) M norephinephrine also increased the 5'D activity of astroglial cells. After a 4-h incubation these agents or cAMP analogs had maximal effect, and enzyme activities were 6- to 14-fold above control value. The stimulatory effects of isoproterenol and norepinephrine were almost completely reversed after 8 h incubation. The induction of 5'D activity by isoproterenol or norepinephrine was inhibited by the beta-adrenergic antagonist alprenolol (5 X 10(-6) M). The effect of norepinephrine was not significantly affected by the alpha 1-adrenergic antagonist, prazosin (10(-5) M). Thus, 5'D activity is controlled by agents increasing cAMP in astroglial cells, and in particular by the neurotransmitter, norephinephrine, via a beta-adrenergic mechanism.

Bovine anterior pituitary glands were fractionated by differential centrifugation. T4 5'-monodeiodination to T3 was found predominantly in microsomal fractions (M2; 105,000 . g pellet) enriched in glucose-6-phosphatase and 5'-nucleotidase activities. T4 5'-deiodinase activity in M2 fraction was 85.2 fmol T3/min X mg protein and represented an 8.5-fold enrichment over homogenate specific activity (10.6 fmol T3/min . mg protein). Further subcellular localization of the T4 5'-deiodinase was effected by discontinuous sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Maximum T4 5'-deiodinase activity was found in fraction P5 at the interface of densities 1.18/1.20 (200 fmol T3/min . mg protein) and correlated with the profile of glucose-6-phosphatase and not with that of 5'-nucleotidase, the maximum activity of which was recovered in fraction P1 at the interface of densities 1.03/1.12. Electron microscopic examination of the fractions confirmed that P5 contained in excess of 90% rough membranes in contrast to 10% or less in P1. Characterization of T4 5'-deiodinase activity was carried out in M2 preparations. The reaction was thiol dependent, requiring the presence of 50 mM dithiothreitol or more (Km, 38 mM), with a maximum velocity of 55-150 fmol T3/min . mg protein (n = 8). Enzyme activity was substrate dependent, with a Km for T4 between 35-70 nM. 5'-Monodeiodination of T4 was abolished by heating to 70 C for 30 min and was unaffected by EDTA. Propylthiouracil and methimazole did not inhibit T3 generation. Iopanoic acid, on the other hand, was a competitive inhibitor of the 5'-monodeiodination reaction, abolishing T3 production in a dose-dependent manner with a Ki of 3 microM. These data indicate that the bovine anterior pituitary contains significant T4 5'-deiodinase activity, which shares many properties of the type II 5'-deiodinase of the rat. Bovine anterior pituitary T4 5'-deiodinase appears to be predominantly localized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

The metabolism of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in cultured glial cells was studied in situ. Cultures were prepared from fetal rat brain and grown for the last 4 days in a chemically defined medium (CDM). They contained astrocytes and oligodendrocytes as shown by the enzyme markers, glutamine synthetase and 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide phosphohydrolase. These cells contained high affinity (22-33 pM), limited capacity (120-230 fmol/mg DNA) nuclear receptors for T3. Cells incubated in situ with 50 pM [125I]T4 actively metabolized the hormone. The major iodothyronine produced was T3 (220-570 fmol/4 h/mg DNA). About 70% accumulated in the cells, the remainder was released into the medium. Within the cells, T3 was partly bound to the nuclear receptors (16.5-20 fmol/mg DNA). Reverse T3 (rT3) was a minor metabolite (30-45 fmol/4 h/mg DNA); it was almost completely released into the medium. The half-life of [125I]T3 (50 pM) was found to be about 15 h. These results show that, in situ, glial cell cultures containing astrocytes and oligodendrocytes grown in CDM actively deiodinate T4 to T3 and degrade T3 rather slowly.