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Tax increment financing (TIF) is a technique for harnessing future property tax revenues to pay for current expenditures that local governments in the US have used extensively to finance regeneration activities. The paper provides an overview of the mechanism and presents a case study — the mixed-use Atlantic Station in Atlanta, Georgia — to illustrate the mechanics of TIF use and to discuss when it is appropriate for public officials to rely on TIF. It ends with some thoughts on the potential for exporting this regeneration tool to countries with different fiscal structures.

Both Chlamydophila psittaci and Escherichia coli infections are highly prevalent in Belgian turkeys and therefore they both might contribute to the respiratory disease complex observed in turkeys. C.?psittaci can infect turkeys within the first week of age, even in the presence of maternal antibodies. However, the first C.?psittaci outbreaks occur mostly at the age of 3 to 6?weeks, the period when also E.?coli infections appear on the farms. Therefore, we examined in this study the pathogenicity of an E.?coli superinfection on C.?psittaci predisposed turkeys. Turkeys were infected with C.?psittaci, E.?coli or with C.?psittaci followed by E.?coli. Simulating the impact of an E.?coli infection during the acute phase or the latent phase of a C.?psittaci infection, turkeys received E.?coli at 1 or 5 weeks post C.?psittaci infection, respectively. E.?coli superinfection during the acute phase of C.?psittaci infection increased C.?psittaci excretion and stimulated chlamydial replication in the respiratory tract resulting in exacerbated clinical disease. Interestingly, E.?coli superinfection during the latent phase of C.?psittaci infection induced chlamydial replication, leading to increased C.?psittaci-specific antibody titres. In addition, chlamydial predisposition gave higher E.?coli excretion compared with turkeys that had only been infected with E.?coli. Overall, the present study clearly demonstrates the pathogenic interplay between C.?psittaci and E.?coli resulting in more severe respiratory disease.

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) infects and replicates in the dividing B lymphocytes of chickens. In the present study, the in vivo effect of IBDV infection on chicken macrophage populations and macrophage activation were examined. Specific-pathogen–free chickens were exposed to virulent IBDV and splenic macrophages were recovered during the acute phase of the disease. At 3 and 5 days post-infection (dpi), spleens of virus-exposed chickens had fewer macrophages than those of virus-free controls (p < 0.05). Confocal microscopic examination revealed cells that were positive for both KUL01 (macrophage surface marker) and R63 (IBDVVP2), indicating presence of the virus in macrophages. MQ-NCSU cells, an avian macrophage cell line, were susceptible to replication of IBDV. In addition, splenic macrophages were activated and had temporarily increased levels of mRNA transcripts of pro-inflammatory mediators, including IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, and iNOS. The robust expression of proinflammatory cytokine transcripts, along with a decrease in macrophage numbers, suggest that IBDV activates and may lead to a reduction of resident macrophages in vivo.

In developing veterinary mucosal vaccines and vaccination strategies, mucosal adjuvants are one of the key players for inducing protective immune responses. Most of the mucosal adjuvants seem to exert their effect via binding to a receptor/or target cells and these properties were used to classify the mucosal adjuvants reviewed in the present paper: (1) ganglioside receptor-binding toxins (cholera toxin, LT enterotoxin, their B subunits and mutants); (2) surface immunoglobulin binding complex CTA1-DD; (3) TLR4 binding lipopolysaccharide; (4) TLR2-binding muramyl dipeptide; (5) Mannose receptor-binding mannan; (6) Dectin-1-binding ? 1,3/1,6 glucans; (7) TLR9-binding CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides; (8) Cytokines and chemokines; (9)?Antigen-presenting cell targeting ISCOMATRIX and ISCOM. In addition, attention is given to two adjuvants able to prime the mucosal immune system following a systemic immunization, namely 1?, 25(OH)2D3 and cholera toxin.

This study is concerned with the evaluation of established diagnostic tests for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansiin pigs. The immune trypanolysis test (TL), card agglutination test (CATT), latex agglutination test (LATEX), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), microhaematocrit centrifugation technique (MHCT) and mouse inoculation (MI) tests were initially evaluated in experimentally infected fattening pigs. All infected pigs were confirmed parasitologically positive with both MHCT and MI. Results of the serological assays indicated that the TL could be a reference test for the presence of RoTat 1.2 antibodies in pigs. The results of the CATT and LATEX were inconsistent with the TL while the ELISA results correlated with the TL results. The four serological assays were subsequently used in two field surveys in Vietnam and Thailand. Results of the two agglutination assays (CATT and LATEX) were not consistent and did not correlate with TL results. The ELISA at percentage positivity of 22 appeared to have good ability to discriminate between seropositive and seronegative animals. Of the 437 samples collected at smallholder pig premises in northern Vietnam, no positive pigs were detected with the TL test. In Thailand, 77 samples were collected from five farrowing farms with a history of surra. Two parasitologically positive sows were found and on each farm seropositive sows were detected.

Plants offer a promising alternative for the production of foreign proteins for pharmaceutical purposes in tissues that are consumed as food and/or feed. Our long-term strategy is to develop edible vaccines against piglet diarrhoea caused by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli(F4 ETEC) in feed plants. In this work, we isolated a gene, faeG, encoding for a major F4ac fimbrial subunit protein. Our goal was to test whether the FaeG protein, when isolated from its fimbrial background and produced in a plant cell, would retain the key properties of an oral vaccine, that is, stability in gastrointestinal conditions, binding to intestinal receptors and inhibition of the F4 ETEC attachment. For this purpose, tobacco was first transformed with a faeGconstruct that included a transit peptide encoding sequence to target the FaeG protein to the chloroplast. The best transgenic lines produced FaeG protein in amounts of 1% total soluble protein. The stability of the plant-produced FaeG was tested in fluids simulating piglet gastric (SGF) and intestinal (SIF) conditions. Plant-produced FaeG proved to be stable up to 2 h under these conditions. The binding and inhibition properties were tested with isolated piglet villi. These results showed that the plant-produced FaeG could bind to the receptors on the villi and subsequently inhibit F4 ETEC binding in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, the first two prerequisites for the development of an oral vaccine have been met.

The pathogenic trypanosomes Trypanosoma equiperdum, T. evansi as well as T. brucei are morphologically identical. In horses, these parasites are considered to cause respectively dourine, surra and nagana. Previous molecular attempts to differentiate these species were not successful for T. evansi and T. equiperdum; only T. b. brucei could be differentiated to a certain extent. In this study we analysed 10 T. equiperdum, 8 T. evansi and 4 T. b. brucei using Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and multiplex-endonuclease fingerprinting, a modified AFLP technique. The results obtained confirm the homogeneity of the T. evansi group tested. The T. b. brucei clustered out in a heterogenous group. For T. equiperdum the situation is more complex: 8 out of 10 T. equiperdum clustered together with the T. evansi group, while 2 T. equiperdum strains were more related to T. b. brucei. Hence, 2 hypotheses can be formulated: (1) only 2 T. equiperdum strains are genuine T. equiperdum causing dourine; all other T. equiperdum strains actually are T. evansi causing surra or (2) T. equiperdum does not exist at all. In that case, the different clinical outcome of horse infections with T. evansi or T. b. brucei is primarily related to the host immune response.

In this study we sequenced and analysed the fimH and fimA genes of 24 avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) isolates, in order to investigate their possible conserved nature. Additional parameters (serotype, presence of aerobactin receptor, expression of F1 pili and virulence for chickens) were investigated to look for correlations with the obtained sequences. The sequence analysis demonstrated that FimH is highly conserved among all investigated APEC strains ($>$ 99% homology), whereas the major subunit FimA is less conserved, presenting 6 variable regions distributed along the protein. A hydrophilicity analysis suggested several variable domains of FimA to be potential epitopes. We were able to classify the investigated strains into three main groups, on the basis of the amino-acid sequences of the variable regions. This grouping was consistent throughout all variable regions and was independent of serotype, leading to an improved classification of the F1 pili. No correlation was found between the fimH and fimA sequences and the following parameters: avian species, organ of isolation, serotype, presence of aerobactin receptor and virulence for chickens. This study elucidated the molecular structure and the degree of conservation of FimH and FimA among various avian pathogenic E. coli strains.

The variable antigen type (VAT) RoTat 1.2 has been cloned from a T. evansistrain, isolated in 1982 from a water buffalo in Indonesia. All T. evansiisolates hitherto tested express this VAT. In a study on the differential diagnosis of T. equiperdumand T. evansiin horses, we investigated serological evidence for the expression of RoTat 1.2 in 11 T. evansiand six T. equiperdumpopulations originating from Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Preinfection sera and sera of days 7, 14, 25, and 35 post-infection (p.i.) were analyzed for the presence of antibodies reactive with RoTat 1.2 in immune trypanolysis, ELISAT. evansiand CATTT. evansi. Within the duration of the experiment, all rabbits infected with T. evansibecame positive in the three serological tests. Five out of six rabbits infected with T. equiperdumalso became positive in the three tests. Only one T. equiperdumstrain (the OVI strain from South Africa) did not induce the production of antibodies reactive with RoTat 1.2 and thus might not contain or express a VSG that shares epitopes similar to those on the RoTat 1.2 VSG. The data lead to the conclusion that T. equiperdumcan express VSGs containing epitopes serologically similar to those in the T. evansiRoTat 1.2 VAT. This explains, in part, why the antibody detection tests based on Ro Tat 1.2 VSG cannot reliably distinguish between the infections caused by T. evansiand those caused by T. equiperdum. There are no data that contradict the possibility that the putative T. equiperdumstrains, which express VSGs with epitopes similar to those on RoTat 1.2, are actually T. evansi.

Somatization is a common, costly problem with great morbidity, but there has been no effective screening method to identify these patients and target them for treatment.

This study demonstrates the effects of recombinant human tumour necrosis factor a (rhTNF-alpha) and conditioned medium of the HD11-transformed chicken macrophage cell line on cultured chicken granulosa cells. Effects were studied on basal, IGF-I- and LH-stimulated progesterone production and cell proliferation. Recombinant human TNF-alpha stimulated basal progesterone production in a dose-dependent manner in the granulosa cells of the largest follicle but had no effect on cells from the third largest follicle. TNF-alpha stimulated and sometimes inhibited progesterone production stimulated by IGF-I and LH alone or in combination depending on the size of the follicle and the concentration of LH or IGF-I applied. However, the inhibitory effect of TNF-alpha was significantly more pronounced in cells from the third largest follicle when high concentrations of IGF-I, LH or a combination of both were applied. TNF-alpha had no effect on basal cell proliferation in both the largest and the third largest follicles, but regulated responses to IGF-I and a combination IGF-I and LH in the cells of the third largest follicle but not those of the largest follicle. The data indicate that the normal hierarchy of follicles is maintained in the chicken ovary through the regulation of the activity of IGF-I and its interaction with LH. Conditioned medium of LPS-activated HD11 macrophages mimicked the effects of TNF-alpha and its interaction with IGF-I and LH on progesterone production and cell proliferation. The observation that the HD11-conditioned medium contained TNF-alpha indicates that TNF-alpha produced by macrophages found in chicken follicles modulates granulosa cell growth and differentiation.

This article models the allocation of contributions by a Political Action Committee (PAC) among a group of candidates running in different races, assuming utility maximizing behavior on the part of the PAC and the candidates. Under various assumptions about objectives, contributions are found to flow toward races that are expected to be close. No model examined yields a clear prediction that contributions flow to likely winners, but it is argued that a skewing of contributions toward incumbents might indicate that contributions are being exchanged for current political favors. Some empirical analysis of contributions by nine large PACs to candidates for the 1978 U.S. House of Representatives is carried out. For the most part, both closeness of race and incumbency appear to increase the likelihood that a candidate will receive contributions.

Thirty-three livers with microscopic metastatic involvement were studied at autopsy by high resolution real time ultrasound at 7.5 and 10 MHz. Eighteen lesions with different sonographic appearances were selected for further microangiographic and histologic analysis. Tumor vascularity was assessed on microangiography. The anatomic pathologic study included both the evaluation of the microscopic and histologic appearances.

F4 receptor-positive (F4R+) and F4 receptor-negative (F4R-) pigs were orally vaccinated with purified F4 fimbriae of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). Serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA responses were readily detected in F4R+ animals, whereas immune responses were not detected in F4R- animals. Even after a subsequent oral infection with virulent F4(+) ETEC and a booster immunization with F4, the F4R- animals remained F4 seronegative whereas the unvaccinated F4R+ pigs exhibited clear IgA and IgG responses. These results clearly demonstrate that F4Rs are a prerequisite for an immune response following oral immunization. Furthermore, indications that oral F4 vaccination can induce mucosal protection were obtained, since the experimental ETEC infection did not induce a systemic booster response or fecal ETEC excretion in orally vaccinated F4R+ pigs, in contrast to the clear immune response and ETEC excretion of unvaccinated F4R+ animals. F4-specific IgA antibodies could be found in the feces of the vaccinated F4R+ pigs. They are secreted at the intestinal mucosal surface and appear to prevent ETEC infection. The F4R-dependent induction of a mucosal immune response can be used as a model to better understand mucosal immunization and mucosal immune responses and can contribute to the development of oral vaccines in veterinary as well as in human medicine.

The omp1 genes encoding the major outer membrane proteins (MOMPs) of avian Chlamydia psittaci serovar A and D strains were cloned and sequenced. The nucleotide sequences of the avian C. psittaci serovar A and D MOMP genes were found to be 98.9 and 87.8% identical, respectively, to that of the avian C. psittaci serovar A strain 6BC, 84.6 and 99.8% identical to that of the avian C. psittaci serovar D strain NJ1, 79.1 and 81.1% identical to that of the C. psittaci guinea pig inclusion conjunctivitis strain, 60.9 and 62.5% identical to that of the Chlamydia trachomatis L2 strain, and 57.5 and 60.4% identical to that of the Chlamydia pneumoniae IOL-207 strain. The serovar A or D MOMPs were cloned in the mammalian expression plasmid pcDNA1. When pcDNA1/MOMP A or pcDNA1/MOMP D was introduced into COS7 cells, a 40-kDa protein that was identical in size, antigenicity, and electrophoretic mobility to native MOMP was produced. Recombinant MOMP (rMOMP) was located in the cytoplasm of transfected COS7 cells as well as in the plasma membrane and was immunoaccessible. Intramuscular administration of pcDNA1/MOMP in specific-pathogen-free turkeys resulted in local expression of rMOMP in its native conformation, after which anti-MOMP antibodies appeared in the serum.

Oriental theileriosis, a parasitic disease of cattle caused by protozoa of the Theileria orientalissergentibuffeligroup, has been reported in Indonesia but its causal agent had not yet been characterized. This study was carried out to isolate and characterize the parasite through comparison of its p33 piroplasm surface antigen gene sequence, with known p32 sequences of T. sergentiand T. buffeliisolates. A Theileria spp.isolate was collected from an Ongole cow in Jonggol, West-Java, and transferred into a splenectomized calf for antigen production. Piroplasms were extracted from erythrocytes by ammonium chloride-lysis, separated from unlysed leukocytes and parasitic DNA was phenol-extracted. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out on genomic DNA with a pair of 20 bp primers showing consensus for the p32-35 nucleotide sequence of 7 known T. orientalissergentibuffeliisolates. An 875 bp fragment was amplified, and further sequenced on both strands by the dye-labeled terminators method. It showed an 88 homology with the p33 nucleotide sequence of the Japanese T. sergentiIkeda stock and a lesser homology with 6 other sequences of Australian T. buffelior Japanese T. sergentistocks. It was shown to share the presence of the Pst1 and the absence of the HindIII restriction sites of the T. sergentiIkeda stock and of one Australian T. buffelistock, respectively. In conclusion, the affiliation to and the relative position of this Indonesian isolate within the T. orientalissergentibuffeligroup has been elucidated.

The life cycle of Tanytarsus sylvaticus (van der Wulp, 1859) has been analysed in two quite different sites in Belgium (Mirwart, Ardennes and Diksmuide, West-Flanders). T. sylvaticus is strictly univoltine ; its single emergence period occurs in early spring. A summer diapause in the 3rd instar is typical of this species. The synchronization of the emergence period, however, seems to depend, on a second diapause, this time in the 4th instar, during winter.

The target cells for infection and transformation by Theileria parva were investigated. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were reacted with monoclonal antibodies specific for bovine leukocyte differentiation antigens, sorted into subpopulations with a fluorescence-activated cell sorter, and infected in vitro with T. parva sporozoites. Infected cells were cultured at limiting dilution, and transformed clones were screened with monoclonal antibodies. The results indicated that B cells, T cells (including BoT4+ and BoT8+ cells), and null cells but not monocytes or neutrophils were transformed in vitro after infection with T. parva. After transformation, peripheral blood T cells and T-cell clones retained expression of most or all of the T-cell differentiation antigens including the mature T-cell marker recognized by monoclonal antibody IL-A27, BoT2, and BoT4 or BoT8, and some cells acquired a low level of expression of BoT4, BoT8, or the null cell marker recognized by monoclonal antibody IL-A29. T. parva-transformed null cells retained expression of the IL-A29 determinant and acquired expression of BoT2 and BoT8 but not the IL-A27 determinant or BoT4. T. parva-transformed B cells in most instances lost expression of surface immunoglobulin and never acquired expression of the IL-A27 determinant, BoT2, BoT4, or BoT8, although some cells acquired a low level of expression of the null cell marker recognized by monoclonal antibody IL-A29. Further studies on cell lines and clones grown in vitro from populations isolated from T. parva-infected cattle suggested that the majority of the in vivo T. parva-transformed cells were of T-cell origin.

Reviews in the literature of fetal and neonatal neoplasms deal only with congenital tumors, that is, tumors presenting at or shortly after birth. Virtually nothing is known about neoplasms occurring in the embryonal period or early fetal life. We report five small macerated fetuses with a very primitive embryonal tumor of neuroectodermal origin. The tumor characteristically showed massive vascular permeation. Expulsion of the fetus occurred during the fourth or fifth month of pregnancy. It is suggested that this primitive neuroectodermal tumor is a "new" cause of spontaneous late abortion.

Do tax amnesties generate revenue that would not otherwise be collected? Will tax amnesties provide continuing future revenue gains? And is an amnesty appropriate in the transition to a new tax enforcement regime? Based on economic analysis of the choice to participate in an amnesty and examination of the characteristics of participants in Michigan and other states, it appears that amnesties are not particularly effective in identifying tax evaders, so that any long-term revenue gains are likely to be small. But amnesties are appropriate in easing the transition to enhanced enforcement and seem to generate immediate revenue efficiently.

We study the efficiency and distributional effects of financing universal health-insurance coverage, using a computational general equilibrium model of the United States for 1991, with considerable disaggregation among families. Aggregate efficiency losses (primarily from labor supply distortions) range from 0.2 percent to nearly 1 percent of net output. Losses are considerably smaller for a "mandate-with-tax-credit" plan than for full tax finance. All plans redistribute in favor of the poor. The mandate with credit is much better for the highest income groups, but worse for the lower-middle class. The elderly lose in all plans we consider.

SummaryTwo BoT2+, BoT8+cytotoxic T cell clones were generated from peripheral blood of a steer immunized with the intracellular protozoan parasite Theileria parva. Both cytotoxic T cell clones appeared to be restricted by the same major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule and were specific for the immunizing parasite clone. However, one of the two clones also recognized uninfected mouse cell lines carrying the H‐2dhaplotype. Inhibition of cytotoxicity with monoclonal antibodies specific for polymorphic determinants on H‐2 molecules confirmed that this CTL clone recognized the H‐2KdMHC molecule. These results extend to the bovine system observations in other species that foreign MHC mimics self MHC plus antigen.

Class I major histocompatibility complex-restricted parasite-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are known to be a major component of the bovine immune response to the protozoan parasite Theileria parva, but formal proof for their role in protection of cattle against infection with T. parva has been lacking. Animals immunized with one stock of T. parva show variations in the degree of protection against heterologous challenge and also in the parasite strain specificity of their CTL responses. The present study investigated the relationship of strain specificity of CTL responses and cross-protection in an effort to verify the role of CTL in protection. The parasite strain specificity of the CTL responses generated in 23 cattle immunized with either of two immunologically distinct parasite populations was examined, and the susceptibility of individual cattle to challenge with the heterologous parasite population was determined. The frequency of stock-specific or cross-reactive CTL precursor cells (CTLp) in individual animals was measured by a limiting-dilution microassay. A proportion of animals immunized with either parasite exhibited cross-reactive CTLp, whereas CTLp detected in the remaining animals were specific for the homologous parasite. On challenge with the heterologous stock, those animals with cross-reactive CTLp were solidly protected while those with strain-specific CTLp showed moderate to severe reactions, although many of them recovered. The finding of a close association between strain specificity of the CTL response and protection against challenge provides strong evidence that CTL are important in mediating immunity.

Evidence that class I major histocompatibility complex-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are involved in immunity to malaria has highlighted the potential importance of these cells in protection against intracellular parasites. Parasite-specific CTL are a prominent feature of the immune response of cattle to Theileria parva, a related apicomplexan parasite. The relationship between the appearance of these cells in the blood of immune cattle under challenge and the clearance of infection suggests that they are involved in the control of infection, but direct evidence is lacking that CTL can mediate protection. We have made a quantitative kinetic study of CTL responses in lymph originating from infected lymph nodes in a number of immune cattle under challenge with T. parva. Direct killing activity and the frequency of CTL precursors (CTLp) within responding cell populations were evaluated. A substantial increase in the proportion of CD8+ CTL was observed between days 8 and 11 after challenge. Frequencies of CTLp as high as 1:32 were observed and activity was essentially confined to the large blasting cell fraction. The analogous response in peripheral blood was of lower magnitude and delayed by 1-2 days. The high frequency of CTLp in efferent lymph permitted the adoptive transfer of this activity between immune and naive monozygotic twin calves. In separate experiments, naive calves lethally infected with T. parva were protected by inoculation of up to 10(10) responding CD8+ T cells derived from their immune twins. Elimination of CD8+ T cells within the inoculum abrogated this effect. These findings provide direct evidence that CD8+ T cells can control T. parva infections in immune cattle.

The life cycle of Tanytarsus debilis in two trout-ponds at Mirwart (Belgian Ardennes) has been investigated. The main characteristics were deduced from an analysis of the larval population dynamics. Photoperiod and temperature appear to determine the annual pattern. T. debilis is a spring and summer species and is trivoltine at Mirwart. Special attention is given to the synchronizing effects of diapause phenomena on the emergences and on the larval growth periods. The literature data, exclusively on adults, have been reinterpreted.

The polymorphic immunodominant molecule (PIM) of Theileria parva is expressed by the schizont and sporozoite stages of the parasite. We have recently cloned the cDNA encoding the PIM antigen from two stocks of the parasite: the cattle-derived T. parva (Muguga) stock and a buffalo-derived stock. The cDNAs were used in transient-transfection assays to assess the reactivity of the antigen with monoclonal antibodies (MAb) previously raised against schizont-infected cells and used for parasite strain identification. We demonstrate that 19 of the 25 MAb are specific for PIM. Antibody reactivities with deletion mutants of a fusion protein containing PIM and Pepscan analysis of the Muguga version of the molecule with 13 of the MAb indicate that there are at least 10 different epitopes throughout the molecule. None of the MAb react with a tetrapeptide repeat present in the central region of the molecule, probably because of an inability of BALB/c mice to produce antibodies to this repeat. In contrast, sera from infected cattle react strongly with the repeat region, suggesting that this region alone may be useful as a diagnostic reagent. Previous studies showed that MAb to PIM inhibit sporozoite infectivity of bovine lymphocytes in vitro, which suggests that the antigen may be useful in immunizing cattle against T. parva infection. Pepscan analysis revealed that sera from infected cattle reacted with peptides recognized by the neutralizing MAb, as did sera from cattle inoculated with a PIM-containing recombinant protein. The latter sera did not, however, neutralize sporozoite infectivity in vitro. These results will be useful in exploiting the strain identification, diagnostic, and immunizing potentials of this family of antigens.