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A long-term Northern Hemisphere (NH) daily 5-km snow cover extent (SCE) product (JASMES) was developed by the application of a consistent objective snow cover mapping algorithm to data from historical optical sensors on polar orbiting satellites from 1978 to 2015. A conventional decision tree algorithm with multiple threshold tests was employed to analyze radiances for the five spectral bands available across the full analysis period. The accuracies of the analyzed SCE maps were evaluated against in-situ snow data measured at ground stations along with the SCE maps from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate Data Record (NOAA-CDR) product. The evaluation showed the JASMES product to have a more temporally stable producer's accuracy (PA; 1–omission error) than NOAA, which is a key factor in the analysis of long-term SCE trends. Comparison of seasonal NH SCE trends from the two products showed NOAA to have opposite trends to those of JASMES in the fall and winter seasons, and to have overestimated SCE decreasing trends in the spring and summer. These tendencies are consistent with the increasing spatial and temporal resolutions of information over time, which were used in generating the NOAA snow analysis. An estimation of unbiased SCEs based on the accuracies of SCE maps also endorses the long-term trends of the JASMES product. The JASMES NH seasonal SCE exhibited negative slopes in all seasons but was only statistically significant in the summer (JJA) and fall (SON). Delayed snow cover onset was observed to be the main driver of decreasing annual snow duration (SCD) trends. The spatial pattern of annual SCD trends exhibited noticeable asymmetry between continents, with the largest significant decreases observed over western Eurasia with relatively few statistically significant decreases over North America.

The Tenth Symposium on Polar Science/Ordinary sessions: [OM] Polar Meteorology and Glaciology, Wed. 4 Dec. / 2F Auditorium, National Institute of Polar Research

The Tenth Symposium on Polar Science/Ordinary sessions: [OM] Polar Meteorology and Glaciology, Wed. 4 Dec. / Entrance Hall (1st floor) , National Institute of Polar Research

The Tenth Symposium on Polar Science/Ordinary sessions: [OM] Polar Meteorology and Glaciology, Wed. 4 Dec. / Entrance Hall (1st floor) , National Institute of Polar Research

The Tenth Symposium on Polar Science/Ordinary sessions: [OM] Polar Meteorology and Glaciology, Wed. 4 Dec. / Entrance Hall (1st floor) , National Institute of Polar Research

The Tenth Symposium on Polar Science/Ordinary sessions: [OM] Polar Meteorology and Glaciology, Wed. 4 Dec. / Entrance Hall (1st floor) , National Institute of Polar Research

The Tenth Symposium on Polar Science/Ordinary sessions: [OM] Polar Meteorology and Glaciology, Wed. 4 Dec. / Entrance Hall (1st floor) , National Institute of Polar Research

GCOM-C/SGLI is a multi-wavelength optical radiometer launched on December 23, 2017. The data provision has started from December 20, 2018. In this research, we briefly introduce standard Level 2 products and their validation results based on in situ data. Mean absolute percentage differences are 16.3 - 69.6% for NLW between 380 - 670 nm, 39 and 64.5% for AOT at 670 nm and 865 nm, 27.9% for CHL and 44.2% for aCDOM. Although the number of in situ validation data are still scare for a few ocean color products, the accuracy of GCOM-C/SGLI data will be improved by our future efforts of calibration/validation activities.

The Global Change Observation Mission (GCOM) consists of two satellite missions, GCOM-W (Water) and GCOM-C (Climate), and aims to provide comprehensive information of the Essential Climate Variables (ECVs) of atmosphere, ocean, land, cryosphere and ecosystem. The GCOM-W "SHIZUKU" satellite was launched in May 2012, which carries the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2). It achieved its 5-year designed mission life in May 2017 and is currently in extended mission phase. The GCOM-W satellite is joining in the A-train orbit to provide synergies with the other A-train satellites, such as Aqua and Cloudsat. The GCOM-C "SHIKISAI" satellite was launched in December 2017, which carries the Second generation Global Imager (SGLI). SGLI data has been released to public since December 20, 2018. Both AMSR2 and SGLI data are used in operational numerical weather prediction and environmental monitoring to reduce meteorological disasters. Because of its observation capability and observation local time, both GCOM satellites have synergies with the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) program and can contribute to objectives of JPSS.

In assessing the reliability of metal-oxide-semiconductor devices, electron-hole recombination induced by a gate pulse, known as charge pumping (CP), is widely used to analyze dangling-bond defects at transistor interfaces. The authors perform CP under the magnetic-resonance mode at the Si(100)/SiO${}_{2}$ interface, and identify the bonding configuration of the defects responsible for the CP. In addition, they reveal the spin-dependent process in the CP sequence, from which they clarify the detailed mechanism of CP at this technologically important interface.

Using micro data covering almost 500,000 Japanese households over the period 1983–2012, we examine to what extent household consumption responds to changes in housing wealth. To do so, we estimate the housing wealth of individual households by matching several official statistics. Employing cross-section and pseudo-panel-based regressions, we find that the marginal propensity to consume (MPC) out of housing wealth is approximately 0.0008–0.0013 for nondurable consumption and 0.0059–0.0082 for total consumption. We further find that the consumption response of older households is larger than that of younger households, which is consistent with the pure wealth effects hypothesis.

The detection of donor electrons is important for Si-based spintronics and quantum computers, as well as complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) circuits. One of the detection schemes is based on the spin-dependent recombination, for which photoexcitation has, so far, been used to generate electrons and holes. In this study, we rather induce the recombination electrically by a gate pulse in Si MOS transistors. Under the spin resonance conditions, we detect signals from arsenic (As) donors, located in the channel edge regions close to the As-implanted source/drain. The analysis suggests that the detection is owing to the spin pairs formed by an As donor electron spin and an electron spin of a defect center at the MOS SiO2/Si interface and to their spin-dependent process during the recombination.

Using two household surveys, this paper investigates whether the saving rates of richer households are higher than those of poorer households in Japan. We construct a number of proxies for lifetime wealth, including those original to this study, and find marginally positive correlations between saving rates and lifetime wealth for working age households. We further find that the relationship between saving rates and lifetime wealth differs depending on the life stage of individual households. Older households with higher lifetime wealth appear to be dissaving to some extent, which is more or less consistent with the lifecycle model of consumption.

To improve surface mass balance (SMB) estimates for the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS), we developed a 5 km resolution regional climate model combining the Japan Meteorological Agency Non-Hydrostatic atmospheric Model and the Snow Metamorphism and Albedo Process model (NHM–SMAP) with an output interval of 1 h, forced by the Japanese 55-year reanalysis (JRA-55). We used in situ data to evaluate NHM–SMAP in the GrIS during the 2011–2014 mass balance years. We investigated two options for the lower boundary conditions of the atmosphere: an offline configuration using snow, firn, and ice albedo, surface temperature data from JRA-55, and an online configuration using values from SMAP. The online configuration improved model performance in simulating 2 m air temperature, suggesting that the surface analysis provided by JRA-55 is inadequate for the GrIS and that SMAP results can better simulate physical conditions of snow/firn/ice. It also reproduced the measured features of the GrIS climate, diurnal variations, and even a strong mesoscale wind event. In particular, it successfully reproduced the temporal evolution of the GrIS surface melt area extent as well as the record melt event around 12 July 2012, at which time the simulated melt area extent reached 92.4 %. Sensitivity tests showed that the choice of calculation schemes for vertical water movement in snow and firn has an effect as great as 200 Gt year−1 in the GrIS-wide accumulated SMB estimates; a scheme based on the Richards equation provided the best performance.

The Ninth Symposium on Polar Science/Ordinary sessions: [OM] Polar meteorology and glaciology, Wed. 5 Dec. / Entrance Hall (1st floor), National Institute of Polar Research

The Ninth Symposium on Polar Science/Ordinary sessions: [OM] Polar meteorology and glaciology, Wed. 5 Dec. / Entrance Hall (1st floor), National Institute of Polar Research

Recently "entertainment computing" (EC) technology becomes a hit term in Japan. There is a well-known "projection mapping" in this EC. Projection mapping is a video technique that synchronizes real and video, and the fascinating world view that the fusion of both produces attracts worldwide attention. "Mapping" of projection mapping has a meaning of pasting a material called video on the surface layer of the projection target. In mapping, by giving images such as light and shadow while utilizing information such as the design and unevenness of the object, realistic multi-dimensional feeling and space feeling can be expressed. In this study, we prototyped an interactive projection mapping that changes according to user’s movement by projecting to the user. This time we focused on sports like baseball and soccer, and we projected the ball to the user by projection mapping so that we can experience pitching and lifting.

We carried out detection and characterization of single Si/SiO 2 near-interface oxide-traps (NIOTs) using the systematic measurements procedure by the high-resolution charge pumping (CP) method we developed, and we found a single NIOT where CP current depends upon both fall and rise times of the CP gate pulse. This demonstrates that individual Si/SiO 2 NIOTs have two energy levels, one in the upper part, the other in the lower part of the silicon bandgap. The results may suggest that the NIOTs also have an amphoteric nature, i.e., have both donor-like one-electron, and acceptor-like two-electrons states, similar to the Si/SiO 2 interface traps.

This paper examines intra-household allocation of resources to gain insight into family relationships and gender bias in Japanese households. We take the Engel curve approach to examine how adult consumption is affected by the presence of a child, either a boy or a girl, in the family. Empowered by diary-based high quality spending data from the Family Income and Expenditure Survey, our empirical results show that adult consumption is significantly reduced in households with children; furthermore, gender bias is not observed in total adult expenditures, while responses of adult clothing expenses to the presence of a child are significantly different between a boy and a girl: spending on a father’s clothing is reduced when the child is a school-aged daughter, while spending on a mother’s clothing decreases when a school-aged son is in the home. Our analysis also shows that after the early 2000s girls receive a larger share of spending for children’s clothing as well as for high school education than boys.

Numerous natural products possess ring systems and functionality for which Hajos-Parrish ketone isomers with a transposed methyl group (termed "iso-Hajos-Parrish ketones") would be of value. However, such building blocks have not been exploited to the same degree as the more typical Hajos-Parrish hydrindane. An efficient three-step synthesis of such materials was fueled by a simple method for the rapid preparation of highly functionalized cyclopentenones, several of which are new chemical entities that would be challenging to access through other approaches. Furthermore, one iso-Hajos-Parrish ketone was converted into two distinct natural product analogues and one natural product. As one indication of the value of these new building blocks, that latter target was obtained in 10 steps, having previously been accessed in 18 steps using the Hajos-Parrish ketone.

Accurate radiative transfer simulations of signals received by sensors deployed on satellite platforms for remote sensing purposes can be computationally demanding depending on channel width and the spectral variation of atmospheric and surface optical properties. Therefore, methods that can speed up such simulations are desirable. While it is common practice to use atmospheric "window" channels to minimize the influence of gaseous absorption, the impact of the underlying surface as well as clouds and aerosols has received less attention. To reduce the number of monochromatic computations required to obtain a desired accuracy, one may average the inherent optical properties (IOPs) over a spectral band to generate effective or mean IOP values to be used in "quasi-monochromatic" radiative transfer computations. Comparison of radiances produced by computations based on mean (quasi-monochromatic) IOPs with benchmark results in typical shortwave infrared window channels, revealed that while this approach may be sufficient for gaseous absorption, it led to significant errors in the presence spectrally varying surface IOPs, in general, and snow/ice surfaces, in particular. To solve this problem, a new method was developed in which a satellite channel is represented by a few subbands. This new method significantly reduces the error resulting from IOP averaging to be typically less than 1%. An additional correction was also developed to further reduce the error incurred by use of mean gas IOPs for large solar zenith angles to be less than 0.01%.

Time-domain charge pumping, which monitors transient currents during the charge pumping process, is a novel technique for analyzing interface defects of semiconductors. In this paper, we make a brief introduction about our recent works on the development of the time domain charge pumping, aiming at the detailed analysis of metal-oxide-semiconductor interface defects. We in particular show that the time-domain charge pumping enables us to obtain capture cross sections of electrons and holes independently, and to resolve electron-emission spectra into two components with different time constants. It is also shown that it allows us to investigate complicated current flow during the charge pumping process in silicon-on-insulator devices.

To improve surface mass balance (SMB) estimates for the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS), we developed a 5 km resolution regional climate model combining the Japan Meteorological Agency Non-Hydrostatic atmospheric Model and the Snow Metamorphism and Albedo Process model (NHM-SMAP) with an output interval of 1 h, forced by the Japanese 55year Reanalysis (JRA-55). We used in situ data to evaluate NHM-SMAP in the GrIS during the 2011–2014 mass balance years. We investigated two options for the lower boundary conditions of the atmosphere, an "off-line" configuration using snow/firn/ice albedo and surface temperature data from JRA-55 and an "on-line" configuration using values from SMAP. The on-line configuration improved model performance in simulating 2 m air temperature, suggesting that the surface analysis provided by JRA-55 is inadequate for the GrIS and that SMAP results can better simulate snow/firn/ice physical conditions. It also reproduced the measured features of the GrIS climate, diurnal variations, and even a meso-scale strong wind event. In particular, it reproduced the GrIS surface melt area extent well. Sensitivity tests showed that the choice of calculation schemes for vertical water movement in snow and firn has an effect as great as 200 Gt year–1 in the GrIS-wide accumulated SMB estimates; a scheme based on the Richards equation provided the best performance.

Impact ionization [1,2], or electron-hole pair creation by charged particles, has been one of the central issues of semiconductor physics and devices. However, due to its complexity of the process, most experimental studies and their analyses have been macroscopic and phenomenological. This situation prevents us from exploring the fundamental physics of impact ionization and of high-energy charged particles in semiconductors.

We developed 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions of azomethine imines with propioloylpyrazoles catalyzed by a chiral copper(II) complex of 3-(2-naphthyl)-l-alanine amide. The asymmetric environment created by intramolecular π-cation interaction and the N-alkyl group of the chiral ligand gives the corresponding adducts in high yields with excellent enantioselectivity. This is the first successful method for the catalytic enantioselective 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of azomethine imines with internal alkyne derivatives to give fully substituted pyrazolines.

Light-absorbing snow impurities of elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), and mineral dust have been measured at three locations at elevations from 1,469 to 1,992 m on August 1, 2011, and at the site SIGMA-A (78°N, 68°W, elevation 1,490 m) on the northwest Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) during the period from June 28 to July 12, 2012. At SIGMA-A, a remarkable snow surface lowering together with snow melting was observed during the observation period in 2012, when a record surface melting event occurred over the GrIS. The concentrations in the surface were 0.9, 3.8, and 107 ppbw for EC, OC, and dust, respectively, at the beginning of the period, which increased to 4.9, 17.2, and 1327 ppbw for EC, OC, and dust, respectively, at the end. The EC and dust concentrations were remarkably higher than those at the three locations in 2011 and the recent measurements at Summit. However, our measurements for EC and OC could be underestimated because a recent study indicates that the collection efficiency of a quartz fiber filter, which we employed, is low. We confirm that the snow surface impurity concentrations were enhanced in the observation period, which can be explained by the effects of sublimation/evaporation and snow melt amplification associated with drastic melting. Scanning electron microscopy analysis of surface snow impurities on July 12 revealed that the major component of snow impurities is mineral dust with size larger than 5 μm, which suggests possible emission source areas are peripheral bare soil regions of Greenland and/or the Canadian Arctic.

The specific surface area (SSA) of snow is of particular interest to researchers because SSA is strongly related to snow albedo and is a comparatively better indicator of snow’s complexity than grain size. The time variation of SSA for fresh snow samples was observed in the laboratory under isothermal conditions at 226 K and 254 K using the gas adsorption method and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller theory. The SSA of the snow samples decreased with time under isothermal metamorphism. The decrease in SSA was fitted with the logarithmic equation proposed by Legagneux et al. (2003), and adjustable parameters were obtained. The rate of decrease in SSA depended on the shape of the initial snow type and temperature. Dendritic snow samples exhibited large initial SSAs, and their SSAs decreased faster compared with those of fragmented (collected from drifting snow) and plate-like precipitation particles with relatively small initial SSAs. The rate of decrease in SSA was lower at 226 K than that at 254 K.

Using high-frequency scan-based data on purchases by households compiled by a market research firm, this paper examines changes in consumption patterns in the period of confusion immediately after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. In particular, we focus on the panic buying of foods and daily necessities observed mainly in the Tokyo metropolitan area immediately after the unprecedented disaster. The results of our empirical analysis suggest that the sudden increase in daily expenditure due to panic buying was mainly due to a jump in the share of households that engaged in buying; on the other hand, increases in prices and the quantities that each household purchased were limited. Furthermore, based on regression analyses on items for which panic buying was clearly observed, we found that households that engaged in panic buying appear to have hoarded a wide range of commodities at random (i.e., they purchased rice, bread, noodles, and whatever they could lay their hands on).

This paper quantitatively examines the impact of intergenerational transfers on asset inequality among Japanese households. We estimate an intergenerational asset transfer function with various control variables, using a unique micro dataset taken from a survey conducted by the Economic and Social Research Institute, Cabinet Office. Employing three different models, a Tobit model, an interval regression model and an ordered probit model, to ensure that our results are independent of the specific econometric approach used, we investigate whether asset transfers received are correlated with households’ financial strength. We find that higher income households are likely to receive larger asset transfers. However, the contribution of intergenerational transfers to asset inequality appears to be small.

Coulomb-blockade transport via donors working as quantum dots (QDs) in Si nano-transistor channels opens new pathways for atomic-level applications, but position-control of such QDs remains challenging. Here, we demonstrate that multiple-donor cluster-QDs can be formed by CMOS-compatible selective-doping, as observed from Coulomb-blockade transport at low temperature (T = 5.5 K). While at high gate voltage electron tunneling takes place via extended QDs, likely due to line edge roughness of the nanoscale channel, at low gate voltage tunneling occurs via a cluster of intentionally-doped donors. For the interpretation, we introduce a model of an isolated donor-cluster as a QD with voltage-dependent tunnel resistances.

The electrostatic potential of p+-n+ junctions, as in Esaki (tunnel) diodes, originates from the Coulomb potentials of ionized dopants in the depletion-layer, but it has been modeled so far based on uniform space-charge regions, ignoring the discrete and random dopant distribution. This model can explain well the band-to-band tunneling (BTBT) between the opposite bands of the quasineutral regions (conduction band in the n+-region and valence band in the p+-region). In this letter, we show that a BTBT transport model should contain the mechanism of tunneling via “inherent” localized bandgap-states, created by dopant-induced potential fluctuation, which becomes detectable as a parallel transport mechanism in nanoscale Esaki diodes. This is manifested by the observation of single-charge (SC) BTBT at 5.5 K in nanoscale Si Esaki diodes. Numerical analysis of nanoscale p+-n+ junctions with random dopant-atom distributions suggests that SC-BTBT is mediated by a potential dip created by a number of dopants “clustered” near each other, i.e., by a multiple-dopant cluster.The electrostatic potential of p+-n+ junctions, as in Esaki (tunnel) diodes, originates from the Coulomb potentials of ionized dopants in the depletion-layer, but it has been modeled so far based on uniform space-charge regions, ignoring the discrete and random dopant distribution. This model can explain well the band-to-band tunneling (BTBT) between the opposite bands of the quasineutral regions (conduction band in the n+-region and valence band in the p+-region). In this letter, we show that a BTBT transport model should contain the mechanism of tunneling via “inherent” localized bandgap-states, created by dopant-induced potential fluctuation, which becomes detectable as a parallel transport mechanism in nanoscale Esaki diodes. This is manifested by the observation of single-charge (SC) BTBT at 5.5 K in nanoscale Si Esaki diodes. Numerical analysis of nanoscale p+-n+ junctions with random dopant-atom distributions suggests that SC-BTBT is mediated by a potential dip created by a number of dopants “clust...

The potential of the thermal infrared (TIR) remote sensing for discriminating surface snow types was examined by analyzing TIR radiances acquired from space over the Greenland ice sheet. The brightness temperature difference (BTD) between TIR wavelengths of 11 and 12μm was found to increase in accordance with in situ observed evolutions of surface snow type. Spatial and temporal distributions of BTD over the entire ice sheet indicated that BTD has a sensitivity of about 1.2 K for variations of the possible snow types. The observed behaviors of BTD were coincident with those predicted by a radiative transfer calculation using previous in situ measured snow emissivities, although some biases on the order of 0.1-0.3 K remain. The dependence of BTD on the surface snow type was also consistent with the behaviors of snow reflectance at the shortwave infrared (SWIR) wavelength 1.6μm, which is a measure of snow grain size, except for the case of melting wet snow. The inconsistency in the wet snow case was considered to be due to the different optical responses of the TIR and SWIR signals to wet snow, which suggested the possibility of using TIR signals to discriminate wet/dry conditions of snow cover in an old stage. As a result, it is determined that TIR remote sensing has potential not only as an approach supplementary to the SWIR method for assessing surface snow types in daytime but also as the only method for simultaneous retrieval of snow type and surface temperature in nighttime., 資料番号: PA1510067000

Exploiting annual information on the work status of female workers from the Japanese Panel Survey of Consumers ( JPSC ), this paper examines how an individual’s job status immediately after graduation, referred to as “first job,” matters for his/her future job career. Using the ratio of regular employees in the labor force in the year preceding an individual’s graduation as an instrument for the first-job status (i.e., regular job or not), we confirm that even for women, whose retention rates are lower than those of men because of marriage and childbirth, individuals’ first-job status has a significant effect on their job status in the future. We further find that the effect gradually declines over the years and effectively disappears around 10 years after graduation. Finally, we find that the first-job effect is reversible: no negative effect of failing to obtain a regular job at graduation is observed if an individual can secure regular employment within a reasonable time period after graduation.

Myanmar's multiple exchange-rate regime creates various economic distortions. This paper describes the exchange-rate practices in Myanmar and develops a model of foreign exchange markets to estimate the welfare costs imposed by the current regime. Our analysis suggests that the equilibrium exchange rate could be around 400–500 kyat per US dollar, and trade openness measured using the equilibrium rate increases to more than 20% of gross domestic product (GDP) from less than 1% in the official statistics. The total welfare loss caused by the current regime is estimated to be in the order of 14–17% of GDP.

The size of snow grains plays an important role for modeling the snow albedo in polar regions. The Snow Grain Size and Pollution (SGSP) retrieval computes the snow grain size using spectral reflectances from the Moderate Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS): the channels at 0.47 μm, 0.86 μm, and 1.24 μm. The unique feature of the SGSP retrieval is that it does not require a-priori information on the snow grain shape. In this paper, the SGSP-retrieved snow grain size is validated with six data sets from ground measurement campaigns in the Arctic, the Antarctic, Greenland, and Japan. Almost half of the comparison cases have a difference below 15%; the correlation coefficient is 0.86. The application of the SGSP retrieval on the Antarctic Ross ice shelf demonstrates the potential to detect snow fall events by analyzing the snow grain size time series for sudden grain size decreases.

Electrically detected magnetic resonance (EDMR) enables us to obtain magnetic properties of the localized states in devices. Here we developed the EDMR measurement system with a low noise, and applied it to the defect states in a silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect-transistor. The EDMR signal was observed for the spin dependent recombination process at room temperature. The gate voltage dependence of the signal intensity indicated that the signal originates from the silicon dangling bonds at the Si/SiO2 interface.

We make a brief review about our research on single electron manipulation using individual donors in silicon. The device we developed essentially consists of a silicon nanowire MOS field-effect transistor with local arsenic implantation between a set of fine gates. We demonstrate that, by tuning the gate voltages, electrons are exclusively transferred via individual donor atoms and the number of transferred electrons is tunable. Control of single phonon emission using the present device is also discussed.

We have developed the CP EDMR and obtained signals from the defects at the Si/SiO 2 interface at room temperature. The gate-pulse slope dependence of the signal shows that the present method opens up a new way to investigate the charge and spin states at the same time.

This paper provides new evidence of consumers’ reaction to an anticipated sizable change in income. Until FY2002, Japanese public employees received predictable large bonus payments three times a fiscal year (in June, December, and March), but the March bonus was abolished in FY2003. We compare the seasonal patterns of public employees’ expenditure before and after the reform of the bonus payment schedule. Contrary to the prediction of the life cycle/permanent income hypothesis (LC/PIH), we find evidence that monthly patterns of household expenditure were significantly affected by the anticipated large change in income pattern. However, at closer inspection, this excess sensitivity of expenditure is observed only for expenditure subcategories of some durability, i.e., durables and semi-durables. Thus, while the LC/PIH does not appear to hold for expenditure (which we observe here), it may still hold for consumption.