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Forensic geology has developed in each country dependent on the history, political and social setting, anthropological influences and geology. The aim of this section is to provide a global overview of forensic geology, including the history, developments and future challenges in Africa, Asia, Australia, Canada, Europe, Middle East, Latin America and the Caribbean, Russia and Commonwealth Independent States (CIS), and USA.

Qualitative studies in applied linguistics often rely on interviews as key research tools designed to generate data that illuminate participants’ views, opinions, and experiences. As such, interviews are frequently a central feature of ethnographies, case studies, action research and narrative inquiries (Talmy & Richards 2011). However, some opinions and behaviours reported by participants in interviews, or recorded in observational field notes may be quite confronting or unpalatable in that they transgress the views of the researcher or may potentially offend a wider audience who may eventually read the research findings. This is especially true of much sociolinguistic research, which traverses topics such as nationality, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, identity, language beliefs, attitudes and learner behaviours. For example, participants’ views or behaviours may be perceived by the researcher as racist or sexist, they may reveal interviewees’ involvement in questionable or illegal activities, or they may pertain to issues and experiences that are deeply personal, intimate, emotionally charged, or taboo. Research of this sort is often referred to as ‘sensitive’ and requires careful negotiation by the researcher (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2013). In this chapter, I discuss my own experiences of dealing with controversial findings in an extended research project that led to multiple publications and I draw out some general points that are intended to guide other researchers when negotiating similarly sensitive topics

Hedonic pricing analysis is conducted to determine the implicit values of various attributes in the market value of a good. In this study, hedonic pricing analysis was applied to measure the contribution of grain quality search and experience attributes to the price of rice in two rural towns in the Philippines. Rice samples from respondents underwent quantitative routine assessments of grain quality. In particular, gelatinization temperature and chalkiness, two parameters that are normally assessed through visual scores, were evaluated by purely quantitative means (differential scanning calorimetry and by digital image analysis). Results indicate that rice consumed by respondents had mainly similar physical and chemical grain quality attributes. The respondents' revealed preferences were typical of what has been previously reported for Filipino rice consumers. Hedonic regression analyses showed that grain quality characteristics that affected price varied by income class. Some of the traits or socioeconomic factors that affected price were percent broken grains, gel consistency, and household per capita rice consumption. There is an income effect on rice price and the characteristics that affect price vary between income classes.

Single component geochemical maps are the most basic representation of spatial elemental distributions and commonly used in environmental and exploration geochemistry. However, the compositional nature of geochemical data imposes several limitations on how the data should be presented. The problems relate to the constant sum problem (closure), and the inherently multivariate relative information conveyed by compositional data. Well known is, for instance, the tendency of all heavy metals to show lower values in soils with significant contributions of diluting elements (e.g., the quartz dilution effect); or the contrary effect, apparent enrichment in many elements due to removal of potassium during weathering. The validity of classical single component maps is thus investigated, and reasonable alternatives that honour the compositional character of geochemical concentrations are presented. The first recommended such method relies on knowledge-driven log-ratios, chosen to highlight certain geochemical relations or to filter known artefacts (e.g. dilution with SiO2 or volatiles). This is similar to the classical normalisation approach to a single element. The second approach uses the (so called) log-contrasts, that employ suitable statistical methods (such as classification techniques, regression analysis, principal component analysis, clustering of variables, etc.) to extract potentially interesting geochemical summaries. The caution from this work is that if a compositional approach is not used, it becomes difficult to guarantee that any identified pattern, trend or anomaly is not an artefact of the constant sum constraint. In summary the authors recommend a chain of enquiry that involves searching for the appropriate statistical method that can answer the required geological or geochemical question whilst maintaining the integrity of the compositional nature of the data. The required log-ratio transformations should be applied followed by the chosen statistical meth

Large genomic rearrangements (LGRs) account for at least 10 % of the mutations in BRCA1 and 5 % of BRCA2 mutations in outbred hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) families. Data from some series suggest LGRs represent particularly penetrant mutations. 1,034 index cases from HBOC families underwent comprehensive BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation testing, including screening for LGRs. The personal and family history of 254 identified mutation carriers were compared based on mutation type. Thirty-six LGRs were detected; 32/122 (26 %) BRCA1 and 4/132 (3 %) BRCA2 mutations. High risk features (bilateral breast cancer, diagnosis <40 years, ovarian cancer, male breast cancer) were more commonly associated with an LGR than a non-LGR mutation (p = 0.008), In families with a BRCA1 LGR the mean age of breast cancer diagnosis was younger than in families with a non-LGR BRCA1 mutation (42.5 vs. 46.1 years, p = 0.007). Across the entire group of mutation positive families the number of relatives affected by breast or ovarian cancer was increased [LGR 3.7 vs. non- LGR 2.8 per family, p value (adjusted for genotype) = 0.047]. Excluding index cases, the odds ratio for breast cancer in BRCA1 families with an LGR was 1.42 (95 % CI 1.24-1.63) and for ovarian cancer 1.66 (95 % CI 1.10-2.49). The increased cancer risk was reflected in significantly higher risk assessments by mutation prediction tools. LGRs are associated with higher cancer risks. If validated, LGRs could be included in cancer risk prediction tools to improve personalised cancer risk prediction estimates and may guide cost-minimising mutation screening strategies in some healthcare settings.Copyright © 2015, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.

Background Men with germline breast cancer 1, early onset (BRCA1) or breast cancer 2, early onset (BRCA2) gene mutations have a higher risk of developing prostate cancer (PCa) than noncarriers. IMPACT (Identification of Men with a genetic predisposition to ProstAte Cancer: Targeted screening in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers and controls) is an international consortium of 62 centres in 20 countries evaluating the use of targeted PCa screening in men with BRCA1/2 mutations. Objective To report the first year's screening results for all men at enrolment in the study. Design, setting and participants We recruited men aged 40-69 yr with germline BRCA1/2 mutations and a control group of men who have tested negative for a pathogenic BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation known to be present in their families. All men underwent prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing at enrolment, and those men with PSA >3 ng/ml were offered prostate biopsy. Outcome measurements and statistical analysis PSA levels, PCa incidence, and tumour characteristics were evaluated. The Fisher exact test was used to compare the number of PCa cases among groups and the differences among disease types. Results and limitations We recruited 2481 men (791 BRCA1 carriers, 531 BRCA1 controls; 731 BRCA2 carriers, 428 BRCA2 controls). A total of 199 men (8%) presented with PSA >3.0 ng/ml, 162 biopsies were performed, and 59 PCas were diagnosed (18 BRCA1 carriers, 10 BRCA1 controls; 24 BRCA2 carriers, 7 BRCA2 controls); 66% of the tumours were classified as intermediate- or high-risk disease. The positive predictive value (PPV) for biopsy using a PSA threshold of 3.0 ng/ml in BRCA2 mutation carriers was 48% - double the PPV reported in population screening studies. A significant difference in detecting intermediate- or high-risk disease was observed in BRCA2 carriers. Ninety-five percent of the men were white, thus the results cannot be generalised to all ethnic groups. Conclusions The IMPACT screening network will be useful for

Purpose: Genome-wide association studies have identified common genomic variants associated with increased susceptibility to breast cancer. In the general population, the risk associated with these known variants seems insufficient to inform clinical management. Their contribution to the development of familial breast cancer is less clear. Patients and Methods: We studied 1,143 women with breast cancer who had completed BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation screening as a result of a high risk for hereditary breast cancer. Genotyping of 22 breast cancer-associated genomic variants was performed. A polygenic risk score (PRS), calculated as the sum of the log odds ratios for each allele, was compared with the same metric in 892 controls from the Australian Ovarian Cancer Study. The clinical features associated with the high and low ends of the polygenic risk distribution were compared. Result(s): Women affected by familial breast cancer had a highly significant excess of risk alleles compared with controls (P = 1.0 x 10-16). Polygenic risk (measured by the PRS) was greater in women who tested negative for a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation compared with mutation carriers (P = 2.3 x10 -6). Non-BRCA1/2 women in the top quartile of the polygenic risk distribution were more likely to have had early-onset breast cancer (< 30 years of age, odds ratio [OR]= 3.37, P = .03) and had a higher rate of second breast cancer (OR 1.96, P = .02) compared with women with low polygenic risk. Conclusion(s): Genetic testing for common risk variants in women undergoing assessment for familial breast cancer may identify a distinct group of high-risk women in whom the role of risk-reducing interventions should be explored. © 2012 by American Society of Clinical Oncology.

Background: The use of multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) to detect large scale rearrangements is now a standard component of BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene testing in the clinical setting. With the cost of full Sanger sequencing up to 4 times higher than the cost of MLPA, it is important not only to determine the prevalence of these mutations but to ascertain the probability that a family may harbour a large deletion or rearrangement in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. Here we examine the incidence and clinical associations of genomic rearrangements in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes in a cohort of index cases from high risk breast and ovarian cancer families recruited from familial cancer centres (FCC). Method and results: The Victorian FCC Translational breast cancer cohort includes 1222 index cases identified from families who had been seen through one of the four FCCs in Victoria. Until 2007, standard BRCA tests did not include MLPA but instead used a variety of sequencing-based methods which included PTT, DHPLC and Sanger sequencing. Of these cases, 246 (20.1%) were found to carry a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation using sequencingbased methods. In a small proportion of cases MLPA was performed prior to study commencement based on clinical indications leading to the detection of 11 mutations. A total of 965 cases were found not to carry a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation through sequencing-based methods and were eligible for MLPA in the study. A hundred and nine cases were excluded from testing: 19 did not fit inclusion criteria, 93 had unsuitable DNA for testing. In the remaining 856 cases a further 24 (2.8% of cases) BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations were identified using MLPA. In the total cohort of 1113 index cases, 246 (22.1%) BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations have been identified, including 36 (14.2% of mutations) large deletions and duplications detected through MLPA. Mean age of onset for first breast cancer diagnosis was 41 years (26-73) in mutation carriers detected using sequencing b

Background: A diagnosis of a second primary breast cancer ('bilateral breast cancer') occurs in between 2-11% of women affected by breast cancer in the general population, but is increased in frequency in women with a family history of breast cancer. We investigated whether the common genomic variants described in breast cancer GWAS studies were determinants of the risk of bilateral breast cancer and compared the effect to that of family history. Method(s): The Victorian FCC Translational Breast Cancer Cohort consists of the index cases of 1374 families with a high risk family history of breast or ovarian cancer. The cohort has been extensively characterised, including detailed personal and family history and has undergone genetic testing for both high penetrance genes and low penetrance variants associated with breast cancer. 1143 women in the cohort have had at least one breast cancer and 208 women have had multiple primary breast cancers. For this study genotypic data from 22 common genomic variants (SNPs) previously identified in breast cancer GWAS were analysed for each index case and compared to the same set of genotypes from an Australian population based control group (n=895, recruited from the electoral role for the AOCS). A Polygenic Risk Score (PRS) was calculated using a multiplicative model as the sum of the log odds ratios associated with each allele. Unilateral and bilateral cases were compared on the basis of both the measured polygenic risk and family history parameters. Result(s): 768 women affected by breast cancer were identified in whom BRCA1 or 2 mutation was excluded by sequencing and MLPA. The cohort was followed up an average of 8.8 years since their diagnosis of breast cancer with 135 (18%) women having a diagnosis of a second primary breast cancer. The average Polygenic Risk Score in the group was 1.30 (Log OR) but was significantly increased in the women with a history of bilateral versus unilateral breast cancer (1.40 vs 1.28 p=0.018), w