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Previous research suggests that combining the keyword mnemonic and retrieval practice produces significant benefits for L2 vocabulary learning, but only for the receptive aspect. This study examines the effectiveness of combining the two methods for productive L2 vocabulary learning. Forty-two 8th-grade Taiwanese EFL learners participated in a four-week instructional treatment. They were divided into three groups with a similar spread of English vocabulary sizes. The learning materials consisted of 21 English words unknown to the participants and equally divided into three sets of equivalent difficulty. Three learning conditions (combined method, retrieval practice, and control) were rotated for each group so that each condition was applied to each set of words one time by one of the three groups. A productive vocabulary test was designed to measure the retention of the words at three different time points after the treatment. Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed that the combined method performed similarly to retrieval practice in the immediate and the one-week delayed posttests but significantly outperformed retrieval practice in the four-week delayed posttest. The predicted superiority of using the combined method over retrieval practice alone in the productive aspect of EFL vocabulary learning over the longer term was confirmed in the present study.

Abstract Fact-checkers want people to both read and remember their misinformation debunks. Retrieval practice is one way to increase memory, thus multiple-choice quizzes may be a useful tool for fact-checkers. We tested whether exposure to quizzes improved people’s accuracy ratings for fact-checked claims and their memory for specific information within a fact check. Across three experiments, 1551 US-based online participants viewed fact checks (either health- or politics-related) with or without a quiz. Overall, the fact checks were effective, and participants were more accurate in rating the claims after exposure. In addition, quizzes improved participants’ memory for the details of the fact checks, even 1 week later. However, that increased memory did not lead to more accurate beliefs. Participants’ accuracy ratings were similar in the quiz and no-quiz conditions. Multiple-choice quizzes can be a useful tool for increasing memory, but there is a disconnect between memory and belief.

Abstract Introduction Retrieval practice has been shown to be an effective means of learning new information, a memory phenomenon known as the testing effect or the retrieval practice effect. Some work suggests that the magnitude of the testing effect can be enhanced when the test used for retrieval practice uses fewer cues to retrieve previously studied information. It is unclear, however, whether such testing benefits extend to peripheral contextual details associated with studied materials (e.g., location where stimuli appear, font color in which items are presented, etc.). In this experiment, we examine both item memory (i.e., memory for the studied items) and context memory under conditions where the intervening test offers fewer cues (i.e., lower constraint) compared to more cues (higher constraint) to better understand item and context memory testing effects. Methods Participants first studied word pairs presented in one of eight locations as well as in either red or green font color. Then, in the re‐exposure phase, participants processed materials in two types of intervening tests (lower constraint and a higher constraint test) as well as in a restudy condition, before a final memory test. Results For item memory, results showed that memory was better in the lower constraint testing condition compared to both the higher constraint testing condition as well as the restudy (control) condition. For context memory, results indicated improved memory for location context under lower constraint testing compared to both higher constraint testing and restudy conditions. There was no difference in memory, however, for color context across all conditions. Conclusion Overall, these findings suggest that providing fewer cues to aid retrieval in the intervening test can induce better memory for both items as well as some contextual details.

Several previous studies appear to have demonstrated that studying with retrieval practice produces more learning than studying with concept mapping, a finding based on which an extended use of retrieval practice in educational practice was recommended. However, a closer examination of the methods used in these previous studies reveals a crucial confounding variable: Whereas participants in the concept mapping conditions performed a concept mapping task without any subsequent memorizing of the learning material, participants in the retrieval practice conditions performed not only retrieval practice but also an additional memorization task, which doubled the total memorization time. The present preregistered study examined whether the advantage observed in the retrieval practice condition over the concept mapping condition in previous studies was actually driven by additional memorization rather than by retrieval practice. While we replicated the previous finding that retrieval practice in combination with additional memorizing produces more learning than concept mapping without additional memorizing, this advantage of retrieval practice over concept mapping vanished when participants in the concept mapping condition, too, memorized the learning material after having created a concept map. These findings demonstrate that the assumed advantage of retrieval practice over concept mapping in fact represents a methodological artifact. Besides serving as a reminder of the importance of a solid methodology, the present study also illustrates the importance of using of an adequate terminology. Depicting a learning strategy condition as “retrieval practice” when the condition actually encompasses not only retrieval practice but also additional memorizing obfuscates the possibility that observed memory advantages may not be fueled by retrieval practice, i.e., the learning strategy as such. We conclude by giving an outlook on the ramifications of our findings for cognitive and educational psychology.

Numerous studies have shown that learned information practiced by testing is better retained than that practiced by restudying (the testing effect). However, results are inconsistent regarding the effect of working memory (WM) capacity on the testing effect. Here, we hypothesize that the effect of WM only emerges when task demands challenge WM capacity. We manipulated WM demands by pretraining 30 undergraduate participants in a multi-session visual search task before an associative learning task involving a test/restudy manipulation. The results revealed that, while participants with higher WM capacity showed a consistent testing effect, the benefit of testing only emerged in participants with lower WM capacity when learning familiar stimuli (low WM demands). We simulated the results using a modified source of activation confusion (SAC) model, which implemented a dual-process account of the testing effect. The results suggested that the testing effect only emerges when WM capacity is adequate for both processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both learner-generated drawing and retrieval practice methods are effective to enhance science learning. To compare the impact of combining different drawing methods (representational drawing vs. abstract drawing) with retrieval practice on the carbon cycle learning, 136 Chinese high school students enrolled in a geography course were assigned randomly to six learning conditions: students built their mental models of the carbon cycle by either generating sketches with or without access to the text learning material introducing the carbon cycle (i.e., generative sketching vs. retrieval sketching), or by creating concept maps with or without access to the learning material (i.e., generative concept mapping vs. retrieval concept mapping), or students just freely recalled on what they have learned from the learning material by paragraphing (i.e., retrieval practice), or restudied the learning material with note-taking (i.e., restudy). Students' learning outcomes were assessed by immediate and one-week delayed tests. Results revealed that no difference was found between the six conditions on the immediate test, whereas students in the retrieval practice condition with paragraphing significantly outperformed those who did not practice retrieval on the one-week delayed test. However, there was no difference between the two drawing conditions regardless of whether they were adopted with or without retrieval practice. Furthermore, the same pattern was found on the factual knowledge questions in both tests, but no main effect of condition was found on both the immediate and the delayed tests for the application questions. We conclude that retrieval-based drawing could be adopted for climate change education at the high school level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Peer observation of online teaching has been suggested to maintain and monitor online learning standards. However, this practice and the designed peer observation forms have been almost exclusively restricted to face‐to‐face or stand‐alone synchronous/asynchronous sessions. This study, therefore, aimed to identify criteria for the successful design and delivery of online courses and develop a rigorous form specifically designed for peer observation of teaching in online learning environments applicable to the Health Professions Education context. Materials and Methods: A three‐round e‐Delphi technique was used to gather consensus on categories/items and process/structure of the peer observation form. A total of 21 international, experienced online educators working in Health Professions Education were recruited. A 75% consensus was considered as the minimum agreement level. Results: Response rates were 100% (n = 21), 81% (n = 17) and 90% (n = 19) respectively. The intensity of consensus was 38%–93%, while the agreement/disagreement consensus was 57%–100%. In Round 1, the 13 topics proposed as major categories for design and delivery reached agreement consensus. One option reached agreement on how to approach and structure the peer‐observation process. All items within major categories reached agreement in Rounds 2 and 3. The resulting form presents 13 major categories with 81 items. Conclusion: The identified criteria and developed form address relevant educational principles such as constructive alignment, online instructional design, retrieval practice and spaced learning, cognitive load, and constructive feedback and authentic assessment, all of which have been suggested as critical aspects to ensure a high‐quality learning experience. This adds to the literature and to educational practice as clear, evidence‐based guidance for the design and delivery of online courses, which differ distinctly from traditional face‐to‐face teaching. The developed form expands the options for peer observation, from face‐to‐face and stand‐alone synchronous/asynchronous sessions to fully online courses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fluently retrieving simple multiplication facts leads to an improvement of overall math scores. In the current study, we investigated how to best reach this fluency in an authentic elementary school setting. We compared the short‐term and long‐term effects of the learning strategies retrieval practice (using flashcards) to a restudy control condition (chanting multiplication facts out loud) on multiplication fact fluency. Forty‐eight second‐grade pupils received an instruction lesson and attended three spaced practice sessions per learning strategy. The learning strategies were counterbalanced across two different sets of multiplication tables in a within‐subjects design. A pre‐test, a five‐minute delay post‐test, and a one‐week delay post‐test were administered. Compared to restudy, retrieval practice led to a stronger short‐term and long‐term increase in the fluency of retrieving multiplication facts. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of retrieval practice on gaining multiplication fact fluency in an authentic classroom setting using original course materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AIM The aim of this study was to determine the status of retrieval practice in original research of nursing education. BACKGROUND The science of learning is an emerging interdisciplinary field that offers evidence-based strategies to improve learning. One of the most highly effective strategies is retrieval practice, which involves recalling previously learned information from long-term memory prior to additional study. METHOD Searching PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, Psych INFO, and ERIC, an interprofessional team followed a formal scoping review framework and utilized the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews to report the findings. RESULTSThe review included 25 research studies, with all but one at the prelicensure level. Quantitative designs were most common, and outcomes reflected objective and subjective measures. If present, terms were varied and inconsistent with supporting research. Documentation of many characteristics was lacking. CONCLUSION Retrieval practice is an increasingly common strategy being studied at the prelicensure level. Opportunities for improvement include consistent use of standard terminology, documentation of important characteristics, and more attention to subjective outcomes and to graduate and continuing education levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is overwhelming evidence in the literature that retrieval practice of studied material can lead to better final recall than restudy of the same material. Far less clear is whether this recall benefit is accompanied by reduced subsequent forgetting over time. This study revisited the issue in two experiments by comparing the effects of retrieval practice – with and without feedback –, restudy, and a no-practice condition on recall across different delay intervals ranging between three minutes and several days. We fitted power functions of time to the recall rates of each practice condition and compared relative forgetting rates between conditions. The comparisons showed that relative forgetting was reduced after retrieval practice relative to restudy, the relative forgetting rate after retrieval practice was unaffected by the presence of feedback, and forgetting after restudy did not differ from the no-practice condition. Together with other findings in the literature, the results provide evidence that retrieval practice reduces relative forgetting over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Selective retrieval of task-relevant information often facilitates memory retention of that information. However, it is still unclear if selective retrieval of task-relevant information can alter memory for task-irrelevant information, and the role of emotional arousal in it. In two experiments, we used emotional and neutral faces as stimuli, and participants were asked to memorise the name (who is this person?) and location (where does he/she come from?) associated with each face in initial study. Then, half of the studied faces were presented as cues, and participants were asked to retrieve the corresponding names (Experiment 1) or locations (Experiment 2). Finally, all the faces were presented and participants were asked to retrieve both the corresponding names and locations. The results of the final test showed that retrieval practice not only enhanced memory of task-relevant information but also enhanced memory of task-irrelevant information. More importantly, negative emotion amplified the retrieval practice effect overall, with a larger retrieval-induced benefit for the negative than neutral condition. These findings demonstrated an emotional arousal amplification effect on retrieval-induced enhancement effects, suggesting that the advantage of the retrieved memory representations can be amplified by emotional arousal even without explicit goals in a task setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are popular in vocabulary software because they can be scored automatically and are compatible with many input devices (e.g., touchscreens). Answering MCQs is beneficial for learning, especially when learners retrieve knowledge from memory to evaluate plausible answer alternatives. However, such retrieval may not always occur (e.g., with easy-to-guess answers). Therefore, we tested whether we could optimize MCQs for retrieval practice with a stepwise display, which presents the question before the answer options. This creates an opportunity for cued recall. In an experimental classroom study (N = 75) and three online experiments with adult participants (N = 45, N = 77, and N = 79), participants practiced vocabulary with either standard MCQs or stepwise MCQs: In standard MCQs, a word was presented with three possible translations; in stepwise MCQs, it was shown for 4 s before the translations appeared. In three of the four experiments (Experiments 1, 3a, and 3b), stepwise MCQs enhanced retention significantly compared to standard MCQs, measured by a posttest several days after practice. Benefits of stepwise MCQs were found for different translation directions (Experiments 1 and 3) and both with easy-to-guess answers (noncompetitive answer options, Experiment 1) and hard-to-guess answers (competitive answer options, Experiment 3). However, the effect was most robust for questions with noncompetitive answer options (Experiments 1, 3a, and 3b) and for learners who reported trying to retrieve the answer from memory during the stepwise display (Experiments 1 and 3). Moreover, retention was generally enhanced by competitive, hard-to-guess answer options (Experiments 3a and 3b). Overall, a stepwise display is a promising and easy-to-implement manipulation to optimize MCQs for retrieval practice. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: We aimed to optimize multiple-choice exercises for vocabulary learning, and tested stepwise multiple-choice questions (MCQs), in which the question was presented for four seconds before the answer options became visible. With such a stepwise display, learners can try to recall the answer from memory before being prompted by answer options. In both children and adults, stepwise MCQs led to better vocabulary learning than standard questions, which immediately showed the answer options. Stepwise MCQs are an easy-to-implement improvement of computerized vocabulary exercises and might also improve learning of other materials and in other settings (e.g., classroom quizzes, mobile apps). Vocabulary learning was also better when answer options prevented learners from guessing the correct response and for those learners who tried to recall the answer from memory before seeing the answer options. Multiple-choice exercises should be carefully designed to optimize learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval practice is an effective strategy to promote long-term retention and learning, but students do not always use it in the most effective ways. Applying various intervention design principles that leverage sociomotivational research, we created an intervention targeted not only at teaching students about the efficacy of retrieval practice, but also at changing their study behaviors. We focused on increasing students' understanding of how to implement retrieval practice effectively and decreasing their perceived cost of using retrieval practice. We found that our intervention increased students' procedural metacognitive knowledge (that retrieval practice can be implemented flexibly in various formats) and intended use of retrieval practice, but it did not reduce perceived cost (that engaging in retrieval practice costs too much time and effort), as compared to a traditional retrieval practice intervention. There were also no effects of our intervention on reported use of retrieval practice. Furthermore, results from a structural equation model analysis showed that self-efficacy of procedural metacognitive knowledge was positively associated with students' intended use of the strategy, whereas perceived cost was negatively associated with their reported use of the strategy. Alleviating perceived cost could be a potential venue for future intervention aimed at encouraging the self-regulated use of retrieval practice. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: Retrieval practice is one of the most potent tools learners can have in their arsenal, yet they often do not use it. We find that a brief intervention can increase knowledge, self-efficacy, and intent-to-use retrieval practice. However, perceived cost predicts whether learners actually use it; future interventions should therefore focus on reducing perceived cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Older adults sometimes show impaired memory for recent episodes, especially those that are similar but not identical to existing memories. Two experiments examined if interpolated testing between episodes improves recent memories for older and younger adults (N = 60 per group and experiment). Participants studied two lists of cue–response word pairs. Some pairs included the same cue in both lists with changed responses. Between lists, List 1 pairs were tested (Experiments 1 and 2), tested with corrective feedback (Experiment 1 only), or restudied (Experiment 2 only). On a final cued recall test, participants attempted to recall the List 2 response, indicated if responses had changed between lists, and if so, attempted to recall the List 1 response. List 2 recalls for changed pairs operationalized episodic memory updating. Older adults showed poorer List 2 recall than younger adults. But both age groups showed improved List 2 recall following interpolated testing with or without feedback compared to no-test and restudy contrast conditions. This so-called forward testing effect was accompanied by improved memory for responses having changed across lists. These results contrast with the inhibitory deficit proposal that older adults should be more interference prone than younger adults when competing responses are more accessible during encoding. These findings are more compatible with the view that retrieval practice of competing responses can support the encoding of cross-episode associations and potentially mitigate interference, thus improving age-related associative memory deficits. Public Significance Statement: This study examined if a retrieval practice technique that can improve younger adults' memory for recent episodes also benefits older adults. By promoting retrieval of existing memories, testing prior information before new learning improved younger and older adults' memory for more recent episodes. These findings suggest that retrieving existing memories can promote memory for more recent related information, thus reducing the mental clutter that sometimes impedes older adults' memory accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Radiology is a highly complex field that requires mastery over an ever-expanding body of knowledge. Spaced learning, interleaving, and retrieval practice are evidence-based learning strategies that enhance long-term retention of information. The aim of this systematic review is to assess the effectiveness of these interventions in the setting of radiology education. The authors searched MEDLINE, Embase, PsycInfo, ERIC, and forward and backward citations for studies published between database inception and February 19, 2023. Eligibility criteria for included studies were randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials that investigated the impact of spaced, interleaved, or retrieval practice on knowledge retention of medical trainees after education related to medical imaging as assessed by postinterventional examination scores. Of 1,316 records reviewed, 8 studies met eligibility criteria. Two studies investigated spaced learning, two studies interleaving, and six studies retrieval practice, including two trials that evaluated interventions incorporating both spaced learning and retrieval practice. Five of eight studies reported statistically significant differences between interventional and control groups on either immediate or delayed postinterventional examinations. Despite extensive evidence in support of spaced, interleaved, and retrieval practice within the broader literature, few studies have examined the effectiveness of these strategies in radiology education. Additional trials are required to evaluate the usefulness of incorporating these techniques into educational programs related to medical imaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research in neuroscience has great potential for advancing the understanding of learning and for the understanding of optimal teaching and learning approaches. One of the most important neurological principles that can be applied in teaching is neuroplasticity -- assimilating new information or retrieving knowledge from memory leads to the creation of new connections )synapses( between neurons and strengthens existing connections. This article discusses three major strategies in learning in general and in learning mathematics in particular, that can be applied from the conclusions of neurological studies: retrieval practice (retrieving knowledge from memory), spaced practice (encountering content at brief periods spread out over time), and interleaved practice (practicing a mixture of topics and contexts). The three strategies focus on dividing the content into small portions, repeating and spacing sessions over time and mixing up topics. These strategies can promote meaningful learning and a deeper understanding of the topics being studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current review of the role of executive function (EF) in reading provides a brief summary of analyses with a large‐scale longitudinal dataset and a meta‐analysis, along with proposing a framework for designing EF training studies. The 1st study, based on latent growth models with structured residuals, demonstrated a longitudinal reciprocal relation between reading and EF in Grades 2–5, but only for high‐performing students and not for the general population sample or those with reading difficulties. The 2nd study, based on meta‐profiling analysis and meta‐analytical structural equation modeling of 378 studies, showed unique contributions of EF to reading difficulties after controlling for language skills and suggested a reading difficulty‐EF deficit vicious cycle with development. The 3rd component of this review describes a framework for a domain‐specific approach to intervention. Based on the findings of these studies, I propose that working memory training tasks should closely link the central executive (attentional control) with the use of long‐term memory through retrieval practice in a specific academic domain, and training tasks should promote strategy use that can be effectively applied (i.e., transferred) to different academic tasks. The research conducted by my group suggests that executive function and reading are reciprocally related across development. With development, high reading performance and intensive reading practice may promote executive function development, while executive function deficits may exacerbate reading problems without high‐quality and sustained reading instruction. Embedding executive function into reading instruction, especially for struggling readers, with tasks and activities that closely linking executive function to reading content knowledge and promote strategy use, can help students improve in both areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: In-training exams (ITEs) are administered annually to Obstetrics and Gynecology (OBGYN) residents and have been demonstrated to correlate with success on licensing examinations. Our study objective was to determine the impact of a question bank and mock exam on the performance of Council on Resident Education in Obstetrics and Gynecology (CREOG) ITEs. Secondarily, we investigated the correlation between the extent of question bank usage and performance on the exam. METHODS: Pre–post intervention study of resident performance on CREOG ITE before and after implementation of the question bank and mock ITE at Indiana University in 2018. Performance was measured as year-to-year improvement in percent correct on ITE exams. Scores were excluded if a resident did not have a prequestion bank score report or if they did not sit for all eligible ITE exams. RESULTS: There were 51 OBGYN residents at Indiana University during the study period, with 38 available for analysis (75%). Before implementation, average year-to-year improvement for PGY1-2, PGY2-3 and PGY3-4 classes were 0.60%, 1.0% and −1.6%, respectively. After implementation, all resident classes had significant improvements in ITE scores of 6.6% (P <.01), 9.0% (P <.01), and 7.2% (P <.01), respectively. There was a moderate program-wide correlation between the number of questions completed and the percent improvement on the ITE of R = 0.36 (P =.046). CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrated that access to a question bank and mock ITE significantly improved CREOG ITE performance of OBGYN residents at Indiana University. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Retrieval practice promotes retention of learned information more than restudying the information. However, benefits of multiple-choice testing over restudying in real-world educational contexts and the role of practically relevant moderators such as feedback and learners' ability to retrieve tested content from memory (i.e., retrievability) are still underexplored. Objective: The present research examines the benefits of multiple-choice questions with an experimental design that maximizes internal validity, while investigating the role of feedback and retrievability in an authentic educational setting of a university psychology course. Method: After course sessions, students answered multiple-choice questions or restudied course content and afterward could choose to revisit learning content and obtain feedback in a self-regulated way. Results: Participants on average obtained corrective feedback for 9% of practiced items when practicing course content. In the criterial test, practicing retrieval was not superior to reading summarizing statements in general but a testing effect emerged for questions that targeted information that participants could easily retrieve from memory. Conclusion: Feedback was rarely sought. However, even without feedback, participants profited from multiple-choice questions that targeted easily retrievable information. Teaching Implications: Caution is advised when employing multiple-choice testing in self-regulated learning environments in which students are required to actively obtain feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Psychology instructors face decisions about adopting new approaches to lectures, readings, and assessment in their courses. Statement of the Problem: These choices about course structure can be both intimidating and confusing in terms of the costs and benefits for different options. Literature Review: As framed by anecdotal and empirical evidence from personal experience in teaching introductory psychology, this article reviews research on impactful pedagogy. The goal is to provide useful encouragement and cautionary notes on these different options. Teaching Implications: Based on 18 classes, taught over a dozen years, the authors provide concrete tips for how to navigate decision points and implement these teaching changes, as supported by student performance and course evaluation data. Conclusion: Though unable to make causal conclusions from this limited data, it is worthwhile to discuss the tradeoffs of choices surrounding lectures, readings, and assessments in introductory psychology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Testing (i.e., retrieval practice) is one of the most powerful strategies to boost learning. A recent study observed an incidental finding that making judgments of learning (JOLs) following retrieval practice further enhanced learning of education-related texts to a medium extent (Cohen's d = 0.44) by comparison with retrieval practice itself, suggesting that making JOLs may serve as an easy-to-implement educational intervention to improve the benefits of testing. Three experiments (one pre-registered) were conducted to test the replicability of Ariel et al.'s incidental finding and to further determine whether making JOLs following retrieval practice reactively enhances the benefits of testing for text learning. The three experiments consistently provided Bayesian evidence supporting no reactivity effect of JOLs following retrieval practice, regardless of whether the replication experiments were conducted in a laboratory (Experiment 1) or online (Experiments 2 and 3), whether the stimuli were presented in the same language (Experiments 2 and 3) or not (Experiment 1), and whether participants were recruited from the sample pool (Experiment 2) or not (Experiments 1 and 3) as in the original study. These null findings imply that making JOLs cannot be utilized as a practical strategy to enhance the benefits of testing for learning of educationally related materials. Possible explanations for the null reactivity effect of JOLs following retrieval practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leukocyte profile parameters are often used as indicators of individual condition, long-term stress and immune system state in birds and other animals. Therefore, it is important to obtain baseline values of leukocyte profile parameters unaffected by stressful stimuli, including capture and handling. However, information about the timing of stress-induced changes in the leukocyte profile has been obtained only for a limited number of species, and there is little data on how various factors (e.g. environmental stimuli, life-history stage or age) affect these changes. In our study, we examined the dynamics of changes in leukocyte profiles following capture in male Great Tits (Parus major), and tested the effect of age on these dynamics. The numbers of lymphocytes, heterophils and heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (HL ratio) began to change between 30 and 60 min after capture, while significant changes in the total white blood cell (WBC) counts appeared later, 60–90 min after capture. Eosinophil numbers were stable within 90 min of capture. We did not observe an effect of age on the timing of stress-induced changes in the leukocyte profile. Overall, our results corroborate previous data obtained from Great Tits but disagree with data for some other avian species. We assume that the dynamics of leukocyte profile changes are likely to be species-specific. We conclude that to obtain baseline values of leukocyte profile parameters, blood samples should be preferably taken within 30 min after capture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) are one of the commonly used assessment tools in the field of medical education. A few initiatives have been made to use MCQ tests during classes as a mode of test-enhanced learning. However, there is a lack of enough scientific information regarding the use of MCQs as a learning enhancer. Aims: The present study has been undertaken to analyze the effectiveness of MCQ discussion as a learning tool. Methodology: The study was conducted in a Government Medical College in Kerala among Phase 2 MBBS students. They were divided into study and control groups of 61 students each. Online lecture classes were conducted for both groups on six topics of Pathology. For the study group, an additional MCQ discussion was done towards the end of the lecture class. Post-test was conducted on day 1 and after 2 weeks. A questionnaire was given to assess the attitude of students. Scores obtained in the post-tests were used to test the significance. Results: There was a significant difference in the mean score obtained between control and study groups in the post-test conducted on the same day suggesting that the MCQ discussion conducted at the end of the lecture class has added benefit (P value = 0.04). There was no significant improvement in academic performance when an assessment was made after 2 weeks (P value = 0.59). More than 80% of students showed a positive perception of this method. Conclusion: MCQ supplementation towards the end of the didactic lecture class is an effective teaching-learning method. Students also express a very positive attitude towards it. MCQs can be considered not only as an assessment tool but as a learning enhancer also. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval practice typically benefits learning in children, although little is known about the benefits of retrieval practice for learning spelling. We investigated this issue in three experiments with fifth-grade children from a low-income area of Brazil. In the experiments, children first read a list of words (study), and after a short interval wrote down the studied words after hearing and rereading them (copy) or after only hearing them (retrieval practice). After an interval of 4 days, spelling performance was greater for words from the retrieval practice condition than for words from the copy condition, but only when immediate corrective feedback was provided (Experiment 3). The current findings, therefore, suggest that retrieval practice followed by corrective feedback is an effective strategy to improve spelling performance of fifth-grade children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report four experiments, wherein subjects engaged in either problem-solving practice or example study. First, subjects studied an example problem. Subjects in the example study condition then studied two more analogous problems, whereas subjects in the problem-solving practice conditions solved two such problems, each followed by correct-answer feedback. In Experiment 1, subjects returned 1 week later and completed a posttest on an analogous problem; in Experiments 2–4, subjects completed this posttest immediately after the learning phase. Additionally, Experiment 3 consisted of a control condition, wherein subjects solved these same problems, but did not receive feedback. Experiments 3 and 4 also included a mixed study condition, wherein subjects studied two examples and then solved one with feedback during the learning phase. Across four experiments, we found that the training conditions (i.e., problem-solving practice, mixed, and example study) performed equally well on the posttest. Moreover, subjects in the training conditions outperformed control subjects on the posttest, indicating that the null findings were due to the training conditions learning and transferring their knowledge equally well. After the posttest in Experiment 4, subjects were asked to solve repeated problems from the learning phase. Subjects in the problem-solving practice and mixed study conditions performed better on repeated problems than subjects in the example study condition, indicating that they better learned the solution strategies for these problems than subjects in the example study condition. Nevertheless, this benefit was insufficient to produce differential transfer of learning among the training conditions on the posttest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is substantial interest in the extent to which the testing effect (the finding that retrieval practice enhances memory) extends to more complex forms of learning, especially those entailing greater element interactivity. Transitive inference (TI) requires just such interactivity, in which information must be combined across multiple learning elements or premises to extract an underlying structure. Picklesimer et al. provided preliminary evidence that retrieval practice fails to enhance, and actually disrupts, TI. This study assessed the generality of that result. The current experiments employed a seven- or eight-element TI paradigm in which participants initially learned a set of premise pairs (e.g., A > B, B > C, and C > D) and then engaged in either restudy or retrieval practice of the premise pairs before taking a final test that assessed memory for the original premise pairs and one's ability to make TIs (e.g., to infer that B > D). Experiments 1 and 2 used pictorial materials and simultaneous presentation of premises during learning, a form of presentation that has induced testing effects on other forms of inference. For TI, the results were unchanged from Picklesimer et al.—TI was worse for retrieval practice than restudy. Experiment 3 used verbal materials and likewise found worse TI for retrieval practice. A small-scale meta-analysis combining the current experiments with those of Picklesimer et al. revealed a significant negative testing effect on TI (d = −0.37). Although retrieval practice enhances many aspects of memory, this fundamental aspect of human reasoning may be impaired by retrieval practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opioid use disorder (OUD) continues to impact communities worldwide. British Columbia specifically declared a public health emergency in April 2016. It is known that patients with OUD often experience barriers in access to care, including limited knowledge and training among providers, as well as persisting stigma in the medical community. The Doctor of Nursing Practice quality improvement project sought to provide barrier-targeted OUD education while using multiple effective teaching methods, such as test-enhanced learning, to family nurse practitioners (FNPs) working among private primary care clinics to assess the impact on knowledge and attitudes. In review of an experience survey, zero participants had received prior education on OUD (N=7). TheDrug andDrug Problems Perceptions Questionnaire was used to assess attitudes. In review of the data, attitudes before receiving education (Mdn = 74) improved after receiving barrier-targeted education (Mdn = 66), W = 0, p < .05. Knowledge was tested at three time points. After a review of unique identifiers, four participant tests were successfully linked. It was found that knowledge after receiving education (M = 7.75, Mdn = 7.5) improved in comparison with baseline knowledge (M = 6, Mdn = 6) and further improved after a 1-month time frame (M = 8.5, Mdn = 8.5). Although the project was limited by sample size, providing education to FNPs who have not received prior education on OUD, and using modalities such as test-enhanced learning, showed a favorable impact on knowledge and attitudes. In light of the opioid epidemic, nursing leaders must continue to actively engage practicing FNPs and students with OUD education. FNPs are well positioned to be champions in this area and may mobilize teams to overcome barriers among private primary care clinics and increase access to care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Retrieval practice has been shown to improve learning and memory, but most of these studies occurred within laboratory settings. We explored whether external review websites influenced exam performance in university-level psychology courses. The websites randomly assigned students to either a read condition (i.e., the question and answer were presented simultaneously) or a test condition (i.e., the question was presented by itself, with the answer being revealed after a retrieval attempt). Students could utilize the websites as frequently as they desired throughout the semester, and separate websites were created for each exam within a particular course. Results suggested that the review websites improved exam performance, but there was no advantage for those in the test versus read group. Implications and limitations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Being tested on previously learned material has been shown to enhance the learning of subsequently encountered material (i.e., the forward testing effect). Some cognitive theories predict that the magnitude of the forward testing effect is not dependent on the content in the previously learned and to‐be‐learned material (content‐general theories), while other theories predict that it does depends on the similarity (content‐specific theories). To adjudicate between these broad theories, participants viewed one of four lessons that were similar or dissimilar on two dimensions, academic domain and presentation structure, relative to a second lesson. After the first lesson, participants were either tested or restudied the material. Then they viewed the second lesson and were tested on the material. Results showed an overall forward testing effect across all four lessons, and the magnitude of the effect was not significantly different between the lessons, providing support for content‐general theories of the forward testing effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieving information from memory, compared with different control conditions, improves subsequent retention of that information. Given the ubiquitous demonstration of this retrieval practice effect, researchers have asked whether such benefit is moderated by individual-difference variables. An implicit assumption in individual-difference research is that the retrieval practice effect at the participant level is reliable across participants. In this study, we tested this reliability assumption. In two sessions, 54 participants studied foreign–native word pairs, repeatedly restudied half of the word pairs, repeatedly retrieval-practised the other half, and, finally, took a final test for all pairs. Different word pairs were used in each session. We replicated the retrieval practice effect at the group level in Sessions 1 (d = 0.54, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.27, 0.80]) and 2 (d = 0.79 [0.53, 1.05]). In addition, we found that the retrieval practice effect at the participant level was reliable over a 1-week span both for absolute agreement, intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) =.33 [.12,.51], and for consistency estimates, ICC =.35 [.14,.53]. The result bridges a gap in the literature of individual differences on the retrieval practice effect. We suggest that future studies identify whether, and under which experimental conditions, the retrieval practice effect at the participant level may show even greater reliability estimates than the ones reported here. The finding may also pave the way for studies assessing whether the magnitude of the retrieval practice effect is domain-general or paradigm-specific. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The benefits of retrieval practice (practice testing) are pervasive across various materials, learning conditions, and criterial tasks, and consequently researchers and educators have enthusiastically recommended retrieval practice for educational applications. Less research has been devoted to examining the effect of combining retrieval practice with other evidence-based learning strategies; this article focuses on an emerging literature that examines the outcomes of combining potent elaborative encoding methods with retrieval practice. Theoretically, several possibilities can be identified. Augmenting retrieval practice with effective encoding strategies could significantly improve learning relative to retrieval practice alone through complementary mechanisms of each or through effective encoding catalyzing retrieval practice effects. Alternatively, effective encoding combined with retrieval practice might not improve learning (relative to retrieval practice alone), because the processing produced by elaborative encoding strategies is overly redundant with those promoted by retrieval practice. The extant literature, which has focused on everyday learning tasks (e.g., name learning) and educationally relevant tasks ranging from learning of arbitrary associations (e.g., new vocabulary meanings) to learning from connected discourse, is reviewed, and helps inform these possibilities. The findings largely converge on the conclusion that incorporating elaborative encoding techniques with retrieval practice prior to, but not concurrent with, retrieval practice provides a boost for learning and retention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This small-scale study comprised an evaluation of a teacher professional learning experience that involved the collaborative creation of resources using immersive virtual reality (VR) as a retrieval practice tool, specifically focusing on the open access aspects of the SchooVR platform. SchooVR offers teachers and students tools to enhance teaching and learning by providing a range of virtual field trips and the ability to create customised virtual tours aligned with curriculum requirements. By leveraging the immersive 360° learning environment, learners can interact with content in meaningful ways, fostering engagement and deepening understanding. This study draws on the experiences of a group of postgraduate teacher education students and co-operating teachers in Ireland and Northern Ireland who collaborated on the creation of a number of immersive learning experiences across a range of subjects during a professional learning event. The research showcases how immersive realities, such as VR, can be integrated effectively into blended learning spaces to create resources that facilitate retrieval practice and self-paced study, thereby supporting the learning process. By embedding VR experiences into the curriculum, students are given opportunities for independent practice, review, and personalised learning tasks, all of which contribute to the consolidation of knowledge and the development of metacognitive skills. The findings suggest that SchooVR and similar immersive technologies have the potential to enhance educational experiences and promote effective learning outcomes across a variety of subject areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the use of journal clubs as a method of professional development for teachers and teaching assistants. Journal clubs involve regular meetings where participants critically analyze research articles and reflect on their application in the classroom. The article highlights the potential benefits of journal clubs for improving teacher effectiveness and fostering collaboration between teachers and teaching assistants. It also provides recommendations for facilitators on selecting relevant articles and ensuring meaningful discussions. The use of journal clubs is seen as a valuable approach to enhancing professional practice and supporting students with special educational needs. [Extracted from the article]

Numerical analysis is a unique combination of mathematical and computing skills. It facilitates a deeper understanding of data analytics and machine learning software libraries, which are exploding in use and importance. However, it is a topic that continues to challenge students because it requires a confluence of conceptual, procedural, and computational skills and associated pedagogies. Therefore, it is valuable to identify effective pedagogies and tools to enhance and assess student numerical analysis skills. Despite the proliferation of mobile technology in postsecondary education, its role in the context of numerical analysis is largely unknown. This quasi-experimental pilot study used Practi, an educational mobile app designed to assess numerical analysis performance and promote both retrieval practice and deliberate practice, which have been shown to help improve performance and develop expertise. Participants were 32 undergraduate students enrolled in a second-year introductory Numerical Analysis course at a large North American university. They were prompted to use Practi to solve quizzes on a regular basis throughout the course, before and after each lecture, to promote deliberate practice and spaced retrieval. Results of a paired t-test analysis showed that Practi was able to detect improvement in student quiz performance after the lectures compared to before the lectures. Additionally, performance on the Practi quizzes after the lectures was positively associated with the overall course performance. This suggests that mobile apps supporting deliberate and retrieval practice can complement more traditional means of instruction and assessment of numerical analysis in postsecondary mathematics education.

IntroductionThe present study examined the relative effectiveness of two free-recall-based retrieval practice methods for text learning among students with ADHD.MethodParticipants with and without ADHD read texts and practiced them by freely recalling the information either after reading each section or after reading the whole text. Two days later, participants completed a free-recall criterion test on the texts.ResultsThe results suggested that although more idea units were recalled during practice in the section recall condition than in the whole-text recall condition, the whole-text recall condition outperformed the section recall condition on the criterion test in terms of the proportion of idea units recalled, although neither retrieval practice conditions outperformed restudying. These findings were obtained for both groups. Exploratory analyses further demonstrated a benefit of the whole-text over section recall also in terms of the order in which idea unites were recalled and suggested that the recall of ADHD participants was less well ordered compared with participants without ADHD.DiscussionBased on these findings, when using retrieval practice, whole-text free-recall can be recommended for students with ADHD, along with implementing strategies to enhance the mental organization of the studied materials.

IntroductionIs retrieval practice always superior to restudy? In a classic study by Roediger and Karpicke, long-term retention of information contained in prose passages was found to be best when opportunities to restudy were replaced with opportunities to self-test. We were interested whether this striking benefit for repeated testing at the expense of any restudy replicates when study opportunities are brief, akin to a single mention of a fact in an academic lecture. We were also interested in whether restudying after a test would provide any additional benefits compared to restudying before test.MethodIn the current study, participants encountered academically relevant facts a total of three times; each time either studied (S) or self-tested (T). During study, participants predicted how likely they were to remember each fact in the future. During self-test, participants performed covert cued recall and self-reported their recall success. Final test followed immediately or after a delay (Experiment 1: 2 days, Experiment 2: 7 days).ResultsContrary to prior work, long-term memory was superior for facts the were restudied in addition to self-tested (SST > STT = SSS). We further investigated whether restudy after a test (STS) provides additional benefits compared to restudy before test (SST). Restudying after a retrieval attempt provided an additional benefit compared to restudying before a retrieval attempt on an immediate test, but this benefit did not carry over a delay. Finally, exploratory analyses indicated that restudy after test improved the accuracy of participants' subjective predictions of encoding success.DiscussionTogether, our results qualify prior work on the benefits of repeated testing, indicating that balancing testing with repetition may allow for more information to be learned and retained. These findings offer new insights into the conditions that promote encoding and long-term retention, provide new constraints for existing cognitive theories of testing effects, and have practical implications for education.

Cumulative tests (CTs) require learners to recall previously learned words. The scope of the tested words gradually increases with increased study sessions. A potential limitation of CTs is that less learning may occur for words introduced later than earlier. This study proposes random selection tests (RSTs), which may compensate for this problem. We randomly selected the tested words from all target words, such that learners can review all words in a balanced manner. To investigate whether RSTs compensate for CT limitations, the study randomly assigned 69 Japanese learners of English to the RST or CT group. They were given 45 Japanese and English word pairs and weekly small tests across three weeks. The CT group recalled 15 words per small test, in which the scope of the tested words increased (15 → 30 → 45 words). Alternatively, the RST group recalled 15 words, which were randomly selected from 45 words, per small test. The posttest revealed that the RST group compensated for the limitation and retained the second and last 15 words better than did the CT group. The findings suggest that RSTs enable L2 learners to study all words in a balanced manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although tests and assessments—such as those used to maintain a physician's Board certification—are often viewed merely as tools for decision-making about one's performance level, strong evidence now indicates that the experience of being tested is a powerful learning experience in its own right: The act of retrieving targeted information from memory strengthens the ability to use it again in the future, known as the testing effect. We review meta-analytic evidence for the learning benefits of testing, including in the domain of medicine, and discuss theoretical accounts of its mechanism(s). We also review key moderators—including the timing, frequency, order, and format of testing and the content of feedback—and what they indicate about how to most effectively use testing for learning. We also identify open questions for the optimal use of testing, such as the timing of feedback and the sequencing of complex knowledge domains. Lastly, we consider how to facilitate adoption of this powerful study strategy by physicians and other learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: A significant proportion of currently enrolled college students receive support for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and these students are often at risk of academic failure. Retrieval practice or self-testing is an effective, accessible, and affordable tool for improving academic performance. Three recent studies found conflicting results with regards to the effectiveness of retrieval practice in this population. Methods: The present study compared 36 individuals with ADHD to 36 controls. Participants studied Swahili-English word pairs that varied in difficulty. Half of the pairs were repeatedly studied, and the other half repeatedly tested. Results: On a final test, all participants showed a benefit of retrieval practice relative to restudy and participant status did not moderate the effect. However, unmedicated individuals with ADHD performed worse overall, both during the encoding phase and on the final test, whereas medicated participants were not significantly different from controls. Discussion: An examination of self-reported encoding strategies found unmedicated participants used fewer deep strategies at encoding, consistent with prior work on ADHD and memory. Although retrieval practice is effective in this group, improved strategy use may be necessary to ensure performance that is fully equivalent to that of students without ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asking good questions is vital for scientific learning and discovery, but improving this complex skill is a formidable challenge. Here, we show in two experiments (N = 152) that teaching others—learning-by-teaching—enhances one's ability to generate higher-order research questions that create new knowledge, relative to two other well-established generative learning techniques: retrieval practice and concept-mapping. Learners who taught scientific expository texts across natural and social sciences topics by delivering video-recorded lectures outperformed their peers who practiced retrieval or constructed concept maps when tested on their ability to generate create-level research questions based on the texts (Experiment 1). This advantage held reliably even on a delayed test 48 hr later, and when all learners similarly received and responded to poststudy questions on the material (Experiment 2). Moreover, across both immediate and delayed tests, learning-by-teaching produced a recall benefit that rivaled that of the potent technique of retrieval practice. In contrast, despite recalling more than twice the study content that the concept-mapping group did, learners who practiced retrieval were unable to generate more create-level research questions based on that content. Three supplemental experiments (N = 168) further showed that retrieval practice consistently did not improve higher-order question generation over restudying, despite yielding superior long-term retention. Altogether, these findings reveal that simply possessing a wealth of factual knowledge is insufficient for generating higher-order research questions that create new knowledge. Rather, teaching others is a powerful strategy for producing deep and durable learning that enables research question generation. To ask better questions, teach. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: Scientific discovery often begins with the art of asking good questions. Here, we show that teaching others enhances students' ability to generate higher-order research questions that create new knowledge. Across immediate and delayed tests, students who taught scientific material by delivering a video-recorded lecture successfully generated more create-level research questions based on the material, as compared to their peers who used well-established learning methods such as retrieval practice and concept-mapping. While we teach, we learn to ask better research questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The idea that some recently encountered items reside in a special state where they do not have to be retrieved has come to be a critical component of short-term memory theories. In the current work, the existence of such a special state was tested using the probe-recognition paradigm followed by a delayed recognition test. Across two experiments participants received a series of probe recognition trials where list lengths of 1-, 4- and 8-items were intermixed. Delayed recognition performance for non-target probes was poorer for the only item in 1-item lists than for the last item in multi-item lists. At the same time, the delayed recognition of studied-but-not probed items was better for the 1-item list, compared to the last item in a multi-item list, indicating that some form of a retrieval effect was involved and not lower levels of attention/initial learning. An examination of the size of the testing effect as it varied across list lengths and experiments also indicated that residence in a special state was not playing an important role. Overall, the data are not in support of the assumption that items at the focus of attention are in a special state that do not require retrieval. Our conclusions are that special states cannot be used to define STM memory and that the probe recognition paradigm may be useful in determining how testing affects memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across four studies, we examined the how design decisions influenced the effectiveness of fact-checking articles created by CrossCheck France during the 2017 French election. We measured both memory for the article and belief in the false rumor. We saw no difference in fact check efficacy based on the type of headline (question vs negation) or the number of newsroom logos present around the article (one, four, or seven). In addition, informative design features such as an icon identifying the type of misinformation were ignored by readers. Participants failed to remember many of the details from the article, but retrieval practice was beneficial in reducing forgetting over a 1-week delay. In both US and French samples, reading the fact check decreased belief in the false information, even 1 week later. However, the articles were much more effective in the US sample, who lacked relevant prior knowledge and political beliefs. Overall, fact-checking articles can be effective at reducing belief in false information, but readers tend to forget the details and ignore peripheral information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Practice testing is a highly robust learning strategy that promotes long-term retention, especially in comparison to more passive strategies such as restudying—a finding referred to as the testing effect. However, learners do not always appreciate the memorial benefits of practice testing over restudying, which could limit their use of practice testing during self-regulated learning. The current investigation explored the extent to which learners' metacognitive judgments about the testing effect can be improved via test experience, direct instruction, or a combination of both techniques. Prolific participants underwent two learning cycles. In the first cycle, participants were randomly assigned to either (a) experience a testing effect in their own memory performance (i.e., study unrelated word pairs, practice half the pairs through restudying and half through testing with correct-answer feedback, complete a critical test on the pairs, and receive feedback regarding their performance after using each strategy); (b) imagine they had to learn word pairs and read a passage on the purported benefits of practice testing; or (c) undergo both procedures. In the second cycle, all participants learned a novel set of word pairs. Across both learning cycles, participants estimated memory performance for material learned through testing versus restudying. Both test experience and direct instruction—independently and in combination—led to more accurate memory estimates across learning cycles, but no technique was more effective than the other. In summary, people can learn about the memorial benefits of practice testing when they experience a testing effect on their own memory performance and/or when they receive instruction about its benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intensive training programs have successfully supported students in using cognitive learning strategies. This study investigated whether a compact intervention can promote students' retrieval practice use during self‐study for course‐relevant materials. In an experiment embedded in a reputation management course, students were either given strategy instructions on retrieval practice (RP condition), strategy instructions and metacognitive email support (RP++) or no support (control). Students' potential retrieval practice use during self‐study of key concepts was measured with an online learning environment. Results showed a small but significant effect on retrieval practice use for the RP++ condition as compared to control (p =.005, r = 0.39). No significant differences were found between RP++ and RP, and RP and control and no significant effects were found on a delayed performance test. With our compact intervention, we took a small step in fostering the use of retrieval practice as a learning strategy during self‐study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accumulating research has shown that acute exercise can enhance memory function. Although counterintuitive, acute exercise may also facilitate aspects of forgetting. Specifically, retrieving a subset of items from memory can facilitate the retention of retrieved items (retrieval practice) and inhibit the subsequent retrieval of non-retrieved items from the same category (retrieval-induced forgetting; RIF). Given that acute exercise has been shown to enhance cognition-related inhibition, acute exercise may facilitate RIF, which was evaluated in three experiments. In Experiment 1, a sample of 180 young adults completed either a control (N = 60), moderate-intensity acute exercise (N = 57), or vigorous-intensity acute exercise session (N = 63). Both acute exercise sessions lasted 20 min and occurred prior to the study list. Participants then completed a standard RIF protocol, with the final test occurring via a recognition task. Acute exercise, regardless of intensity, had no effect on RIF. Experiment 2 (N = 225) was similar to Experiment 1 but used a cued recall final test, and also showed no effects of acute exercise on RIF. In Experiment 3 (N = 158), two cued recall tests were implemented, with acute exercise occurring between the two tests. Acute exercise, but not a control scenario, preserved the RIF effect across the cued recall assessments. These findings suggest that acute exercise prior to study may not influence RIF, but when positioned between two recall assessments, acute exercise may preserve the RIF effect over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two-stage testing (TST) involves individual testing followed by taking the same test in teams. Previously, Vogler and Robinson (The Journal of Experimental Education, 84(4), 787–803, 2016) found that TST facilitated individual performance. The present study addressed methodological limitations in the Vogler and Robinson study in two replications along with isolating the components of TST in a laboratory study. In Experiments 1 and 2, where undergraduates remained in testing conditions (individual or TST) for the entire semester, no TST advantages were found. Experiment 3 controlled for the effects of initial test format [short answer (SA) versus multiple choice (MC)], mode (individual vs. group), and repetition (once vs. twice) on new and old (appeared on previous tests) MC and SA items. Two weeks after watching a lecture and being tested once or twice individually or in teams, students were tested once more individually. Results revealed effects for repetition (taking an initial test twice was better than once—confirming test-enhanced learning) and format (taking an initial SA test was better than MC—confirming the superiority of supply over recognition tests). However, taking an initial team test was no better than taking an individual test. TST alone may not lead to individual learning gains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval‐based learning has been investigated in various populations. The present study examined retrieval‐based learning in a sample of students at a special‐needs school with educational tracks for learning and mental development. In addition, a comparison group of students at a regular school was examined. Learning conditions were manipulated within participants. In a first session, participants either received restudy cycles only, or they received alternating test and restudy cycles. A second session then comprised the opposite form of practice. In both sessions, a final test assessed memory after a short distractor phase. This procedure was the same in two experiments but with different kinds of item material. For both kinds (images and image‐word pairs), a testing effect occurred, that is higher recall of tested items. These results show that lower cognitive ability or lack of experience with regularly being tested in school do not prevent students from benefiting from retrieval‐based learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]