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Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) is highly correlated with human intelligence, and it has been widely used to measure the abstract reasoning ability of humans. In this paper, to study the abstract reasoning capability of deep neural networks, we propose the first unsupervised learning method for solving RPM problems. Since the ground truth labels are not allowed, we design a pseudo target based on the prior constraints of the RPM formulation to approximate the ground-truth label, which effectively converts the unsupervised learning strategy into a supervised one. However, the correct answer is wrongly labelled by the pseudo target, and thus the noisy contrast will lead to inaccurate model training. To alleviate this issue, we propose to improve the model performance with negative answers. Moreover, we develop a decentralization method to adapt the feature representation to different RPM problems. Extensive experiments on three datasets demonstrate that our method even outperforms some of the supervised approaches. Our code is available at https://github.com/visiontao/ncd .

The Occupational Depression Inventory (ODI) was recently developed to assess depressive symptoms that individuals specifically attribute to their work. Research on the criterion validity of the instrument is still in its infancy. In this study, we examined whether the ODI predicted performance on, and appreciation of, a cognitively challenging test. In light of the link established between clinical depression and neuropsychological impairment, and considering that individuals with depressive symptoms are more likely to feel helpless under challenging circumstances, we hypothesized that occupational depression would be associated with poorer cognitive performance and a darkened appreciation of the task undertaken. We relied on a sample of 1,359 educational staff members. We used an abridged version of Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPMs) as a cognitively challenging task and measure of cognitive performance. RAPMs assess so-called eductive ability (meaning-making and problem-solving abilities) through items of various degrees of difficulty. Transient mood was assessed with a three-item measure before RAPMs were administered. Task appreciation was assessed with a single-item measure after the completion of RAPMs. We found occupational depression to be negatively linked to cognitive performance. A two-step cluster analysis, in which ODI and RAPMs scores were used as classifiers, revealed two profiles of respondents. The first profile was characterized by relatively low levels of depressive symptoms and high levels of cognitive performance; the second profile, by relatively high levels of depressive symptoms and low levels of cognitive performance. The two profiles differed strongly from one another, as indexed by Cohen’s ds of 2.492 regarding depressive symptoms and 1.263 regarding cognitive performance. As anticipated, occupational depression predicted a darkened appreciation of the test. The association remained statistically significant, and largely unchanged, controlling for pretest mood and test performance. The highest levels of depressive symptoms were observed among individuals evaluating the task as “frustrating” and “discouraging.” Our study suggests that occupational depression predicts poorer cognitive performance and a negativized experience of cognitive challenge. Such features may be part of a self-sustaining loop fostering the maintenance of depressive symptoms. The extent to which the ODI predicts performance in the work context needs to be investigated.

Epidemiological studies mostly focus on single environmental exposures. This study aims to systematically assess associations between a wide range of prenatal and childhood environmental exposures and cognition. The study sample included data of 1298 mother-child pairs, children were 6–11 years-old, from six European birth cohorts. We measured 87 exposures during pregnancy and 122 cross-sectionally during childhood, including air pollution, built environment, meteorology, natural spaces, traffic, noise, chemicals and life styles. The measured cognitive domains were fluid intelligence (Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices test, CPM), attention (Attention Network Test, ANT) and working memory (N-Back task). We used two statistical approaches to assess associations between exposure and child cognition: the exposome-wide association study (ExWAS) considering each exposure independently, and the deletion-substitution-addition algorithm (DSA) considering all exposures simultaneously to build a final multiexposure model. Based on this multiexposure model that included the exposure variables selected by ExWAS and DSA models, child organic food intake was associated with higher fluid intelligence (CPM) scores (beta = 1.18; 95% CI = 0.50, 1.87) and higher working memory (N-Back) scores (0.23; 0.05, 0.41), and child fast food intake (−1.25; −2.10, −0.40), house crowding (−0.39; −0.62, −0.16), and child environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) (−0.89; −1.42, −0.35), were all associated with lower CPM scores. Indoor PM2.5 exposure was associated with lower N-Back scores (−0.09; −0.16, −0.02). Additional associations in the unexpected direction were found: Higher prenatal mercury levels, maternal alcohol consumption and child higher perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) levels were associated with better cognitive performance; and higher green exposure during pregnancy with lower cognitive performance. This first comprehensive and systematic study of many prenatal and childhood environmental risk factors suggests that unfavourable child nutrition, family crowdedness and child indoor air pollution and ETS exposures adversely and cross-sectionally associate with cognitive function. Unexpected associations were also observed and maybe due to confounding and reverse causality., Graphical abstract Prenatal and childhood exposome-wide associations with child fluid intelligence (CPM). The exposures selected by Deletion-substitution-addition algorithm are represented by a triangle. Child fluid intelligence is mainly associated with childhood exposome, fast-food (negative association, left sided) and organic food consumption (positive, right sided), house crowding (negative, left sided), and child environmental tobacco smoke (ETS, negative, left sided). Image 1, Highlights • Previous evidence for environmental risk factor associations with neurodevelopment is based on analyses of single exposures. • We systematically analysed multiple environmental exposures in relation to child neurodevelopment. • The findings describe a list of outcome-related exposures: Diet, house crowding, indoor air pollution and tobacco smoke. • The findings show methodological complexities of analysing multiple exposures and their associations with neurodevelopment.

This study aimed to determine the relationship between the level of physical fitness with intellectual intelligence (IQ) in soccer athletes. The research method uses the correlational method. The sample in this study were 13 male soccer athletes who were members of the Soccer Club at the college level. The sampling technique used was purposive sampling. The research instrument used to measure students' physical fitness was the Multilevel Fitness Test (MFT). Meanwhile, the measurement of intellectual intelligence (IQ) uses an IQ test with Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) test. Data analysis used a correlation test to confirm the relationship between physical fitness and intellectual intelligence (IQ). The results showed that the male soccer athletes' average level of physical fitness (Vo2 Max) was in a good category. The intermediate IQ level is in the High Average category. The correlation test shows a linear relationship between physical fitness and intellectual intelligence (IQ). The better the physical fitness, the higher the intellectual intelligence.

Speed of sensory information processing has long been recognized as an important characteristic of global intelligence, though few studies have concurrently investigated the contribution of different types of information processing to nonverbal IQ in children, nor looked at whether chronological age vs. months of early schooling plays a larger role. Thus, this study investigated the speed of visual information processing in three tasks including a simple visual inspection time (IT) task, a visual-verbal processing task using Rapid Automatic Naming (RAN) of objects as an accepted preschool predictor of reading, and a visuomotor processing task using a game-like iPad application, (the “SLURP” task) that requires writing like skills, in association with nonverbal IQ (Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices) in children (n = 100) aged 5–7 years old. Our results indicate that the rate and accuracy of information processing for all three tasks develop with age, but that only RAN and SLURP rates show significant improvement with years of schooling. RAN and SLURP also correlated significantly with nonverbal IQ scores, but not with IT. Regression analyses demonstrate that months of formal schooling provide additional contributions to the speed of dual-task visual-verbal (RAN) and visuomotor performance and Raven’s scores supporting the domain-specific hypothesis of processing speed development for specific skills as they contribute to global measures such as nonverbal IQ. Finally, RAN and SLURP are likely to be useful measures for the early identification of young children with lower intelligence and potentially poor reading.

Self-talk can improve cognitive performance, but the underlying mechanism of such improvement has not been investigated. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of self-talks on functional connectivity associated with cognitive performance. We used the short form of Progressive Matrices Test (sRPM) to measure differences in performance improvements between self-respect and self-criticism. Participants were scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging in the following order: baseline, during-sRPM1, post-sRPM1, self-respect or self-criticism, during-sRPM2, and post-sRPM2. Analysis was conducted to identify the self-talks' modulatory effects on the reward-motivation, default mode, and central-executive networks. Increase in sRPM2 score compared to sRPM1 score was observed only after self-criticism. The self-talk-by-repetition interaction effect was not found for during-sRPM, but found for post-sRPM; decreased nucleus accumbens-based connectivity was shown after self-criticism compared with self-respect. However, the significant correlations between the connectivity change and performance change appeared only in the self-respect group. Our findings showed that positive self-talk and negative self-talk differently modulate brain states concerning cognitive performance. Self-respect may have both positive and negative effects due to enhanced executive functions and inaccurate confidence, respectively, whereas self-criticism may positively affect cognitive performance by inducing a less confident state that increases internal motivation and attention.

Deep learning and symbolic AI (artificial intelligence) are at the stage of reconciliation to promote development of AI’s complex reasoning ability. As the widely used human IQ (intelligence quotient) test problems, Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM), formed with symbols of compositional representations, are also suited for measuring AI’s abstract reasoning performance. Recent attempts of using deep residual network, or ResNet, on the RPM problems have proven effective, yet deeper insights into it are still remained unexplored. This work is based on the RAVEN dataset. We first investigate the data efficiency of the network by testing the performance of various dataset sizes. Then, the work probes on how the ResNet cracks the problems, and we find the original dataset answer generation could lead to context blind reasoning. So, we propose a new way to regenerate the answers for future studies and fix the loophole. This method also leads to a neural network’s true abstract reasoning ability evaluation based on the context. Last, we interpret the deep residual networks’ reasoning performance on each rules and ablated attributes for deeper understanding and future improvement.

Musical practice may benefit not only domain-specific abilities, such as pitch discrimination and music performance, but also domain-general abilities, like executive functioning and memory. Behavioral and neural changes in visual processing have been associated with music-reading experience. However, it is still unclear whether there is a domain-specific visual ability to process musical notation. This study investigates the specificity of the visual skills relevant to simple decisions about musical notation. Ninety-six participants varying in music-reading experience answered a short survey to quantify experience with musical notation and completed a test battery that assessed musical notation reading fluency and accuracy at the level of individual note or note sequence. To characterize how this ability may relate to domain-general abilities, we also estimated general intelligence (as measured with the Raven's Progressive Matrices) and general object-recognition ability (as measure by a recently proposed construct o). We obtained reliable measurements on our various tasks and found evidence for a domain-specific ability of the perception of musical notation. This music-reading ability and domain-general abilities were found to contribute to performance on specific tasks differently, depending on the level of experience reading music.

Objective Objective assessment of neurocognitive lags in pediatric HIV patients and its correlation with various clinical, social and familial factors. Methods Ninety-eight school-aged children living with HIV (CLHIV) (age 7-18 years) attending regional pediatric HIV clinic were observed for neurocognitive lag using Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices by the same trained instructor. Sociodemographic data, mode of transmission, clinical staging, CD4 count, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) duration were recorded and analyzed in the well-performing group and under-performing group. Results 29.6% of children had definitive neurocognitive lag. The proportion of older children (11-18 years) in the under-performing group was significantly high (P = 0.007). The mean CD4 counts were low in the under-performing group (P = 0.001). Other socioeconomic factors could not be specifically correlated with neurocognitive lag in either of the groups. Conclusion CLHIV has a significant neurocognitive lag, which is accentuated in the upper age group. Findings point toward declining intellectual gains with increasing age in CLHIV.

This study investigated the relationship between general intelligence and implicit memory performance in conjunction with aging. Data have been collected from 95 volunteers (49 young-46 older adults). General intelligence was measured by the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) test. Participants’ implicit memory performance was measured by the Word Stem Completion (WSC) task, in which the participants were presented with first three letters of a word and asked to complete this stem with the first word that comes to their mind. Explicit memory performance was also measured to be able to make a comparison with implicit memory performance and to document the differentiation between implicit and explicit memory. Although the same WSC task was used to measure implicit and explicit memory performance separately, the different instructions were used to deduce the different memory types. According to the results of factorial ANOVA, the main effect of age on general intelligence score was found to be statistically significant. After running further analyses by Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, results indicated that RSPM test total correct score had a tendency to decrease with increasing age and RSPM test completion time had a tendency to increase with aging. Results also showed that implicit WSC task score and RSPM test total correct score were positively correlated. Similarly, explicit WSC task score and RSPM test total correct score were positively correlated, too. However, RSPM test completion time did not differ depending on implicit and explicit memory performances which were measured by WSC task. The present study indicated the relation between implicit WSC task and general intelligence. Within this context, this study is important to draw attention to the contribution of implicit memory measurement which is in the shadow of traditional explicit memory measurements to general intelligence, especially in older population.

This quantitative analytical study aims to discuss; the statistically significant differences in the measurement corresponding standard error of the internal consistency coefficient, for Raven' scores of successive matrix tests, which are attributed to: the studies characteristics that used the test. The relationship between the sample size and the internal consistency coefficient of successive matrix test scores, and finally the relationship between the coherence coefficient of internal consistency, the standard error of measurement and the standard deviation in Raven successive matrix tests. The study adopted the descriptive approach using Mata-analysis, and the use of the Fasha-Haas method for post-analysis to confirm the scores of Raven successive matrix tests. The study population consisted of (249) Arab and foreign studies that applied Raven successive matrices tests. The study sample consisted of (56) Arab and foreign studies which applied successive matrix tests. The findings revealed that; there is no statistically significant differences (p>.05) in the internal consistency coefficients and SEM due to the gender. However, there were statistically significant differences (p

Background Improving memory is an indicator of treatment in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Objective The present study aimed to compare the effectiveness of Computerized Cognitive Rehabilitation Training (CCRT) , nutrition supplementation intervention, and both combined on the improvement of Working Memory (WM) in children with ADHD. Methods This was an experimental research with pre-test and post-test, follow-up and control group design. The statistical population included all of the elementary school girls of Tehran City, Iran. Using multilevel clustering, 66 children with ADHD were considered, of whom, 52 were selected for study participation and assigned into 4 experimental and control groups, each consisting of 13 individuals. SNAPIV and clinical interviews were employed to diagnose ADHD. The Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices was conducted to measure the participants’ intelligence level. The study participants were matched in age, Intelligence Quotient (IQ), and the gravity of ADHD symptoms. In group one, 22 sessions of 45-minutes of CCRT were performed using Captain's Log software. The second group received zinc, vitamin B6, and omega-3 for 4 months. In the third group, the first phase of the administration of zinc, vitamin B6, and omega-3 supplements was performed; after 15 sessions, CCRT was performed and obtained by the N-back test. Data were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of variance by SPSS. Findings The obtained results represented the increased mean score of the improvement of WM in the intervention groups, compared to the control group. However, there was no significant difference in WM score between the intervention groups. Conclusion CCRT and nutrition supplementation intervention improve WM in children with ADHD.

The objective of the study was the analysis and evaluation of patients` intellectual and memory impairments before and after resection of brain glioma Material and methods. We performed the study of 30 patients with brain glioma. The diagnosis of the studied patients was based on clinical and laboratory data, data of radiation and instrumental methods of research. The analysis of patients` intellectual and memory impairments was carried out in the preoperative and early, late postoperative periods. The patients` age ranged from 25 to 65 years; the median age was 56.5 year. In the present study, we used the following tests: intelligence tests – Amthauer test (for persons under 60 years), Raven test; memory tests – 10 word memorization test, Wechsler memory scale. Results . We revealed regression of various memory (from 100 to 96.7 %) and intellectual disorders (from 20 to 3.3 %; p

Some people share knowledge online, often without tangible compensation. Who does this, when, and why? According to costly signaling theory people use behavioral displays to provide observers with useful information about traits or states in exchange for fitness benefits. We tested whether individuals higher in general intelligence, g, provided better quality contributions to an information pool under high than low identifiability, and whether observers could infer signaler g from contribution quality. Using a putative online wiki (N = 98) we found that as individuals' scores on Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM) increased, participants were judged to have written better quality articles, but only when identifiable and not when anonymous. Further, the effect of RPM scores on inferred intelligence was mediated by article quality, but only when signalers were identifiable. Consistent with costly signaling theory, signalers are extrinsically motivated and observers act as “naive psychometricians.” We discuss the implications for understanding online information pools and altruism.

The study aimed to evaluate the Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) with a Rasch analysis to enhance the precision of the instrument. Accurate assessment of a student potential ability is essential for the timely provision of guidance and counseling support. The Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) is an ordinal measure possessing acceptable psychometric properties, but its ability to discriminate precisely between individual potential levels has not been rigorously investigated. The quantitative approach involved respondent of 12,343 students in West Java, Indonesia. The data analysis used the partial credit Rasch model. This study uses Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices instruments. The results of this study which are achieved through Initial analysis supported the use of the Rasch model and acceptable reliability (Alpha Cronbach= 0.85) was observed. Person reliability is 0.86, item reliability is 1.00. Local dependency between items through the creation of super-items increased model fit, person separation index = 2.35, and unidimensional. In fit and outfit statistics, all items satisfied the criterion for construct validity. Almost all items except 17, 21, and 36 had suitable point-measurement correlation, reflecting content validity. Item characteristic curves indicated that roughly 36 items were evenly distributed along the person ability continuum. The modified APM showed excellent reliability for a measure in assessing the overall potential ability of the students. The item would be added related to the person ability estimates. And several items should be omitted to ensure construct validity. Practically, APM is still relevant to assess the potential ability.

Nutrients are critical for optimal brain development, and good nutritional status is associated with cognitive development and improvement. The relationship between micronutrients intake and cognition in Ghanaian school‐aged children has not been studied. The study investigated dietary intakes of micronutrients and cognition test performance of school‐aged children. A cross‐sectional study was undertaken among 438 school children, aged 9–13 years from ten randomly selected basic schools in Kumasi, Ghana. Socio‐demographic data were obtained from a structured questionnaire. Dietary intakes of iron, zinc, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, and vitamin A were determined from repeated 24‐hr dietary recall data from 351 children, while cognition test was performed using a Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices (RCPM), a 36‐question test. Among 351 children, 156 (44.4%) had inadequate zinc intake, whereas 96 (27.4%) had inadequate iron intake. More than 1 in 2 children had inadequate vitamin A intake while 55.8% and 53.0% had inadequate vitamin B12 and folate intakes, respectively. More school‐aged boys (66.3%) than girls (46.8%) had inadequate vitamin B12 intake (χ 2 = 13.393, p

The purpose of this study is to examine whether there is an association between intelligence and prosocial behavior (PSB), and whether this association is mediated by empathy and moral identity. Chinese version of the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices, the Self-Report Altruism Scale Distinguished by the Recipient, Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and the Internalization subscale of the Self-Importance of Moral Identity Scale were administered to 518 (N female = 254, M age = 19.79) undergraduate students. The results showed that fluid intelligence was significantly correlated with self-reported PSB; moral identity, perspective taking, and empathic concern could account for the positive association between intelligence and PSB; the mediation effects of moral identity and empathy were consistent across gender.

This study aims topreparecounseling program for the families womenSchizophrenic patients to form positive attitudes towards their patients,identify effectiveness the counseling program for modification the family attitudes,prepare training program for the development the social skills for schizophrenic women patients and identify its effectiveness to development of social skills. In this study, 20 of women paranoid schizophrenic patients(Mental Health Hospital at Abbasia) and their caregivers'families were used. These patients were divided into two groups(control and experimental), each group consists of 10 patients. This study is used"Coloured Progressive Matrices"(John Raven).The researchers have prepared the mentoring program for modification the family attitudes,family attitudes scale, social skills program and social skills scale. This study proved that the reliability and validity of the usedmeasurement. The results of this study indicated that there is a significant difference between family attitudes before and after applies the counseling program.There is a significant difference between the control and the experimental groups in family attitudes and between the social performances level before and after apply the social skills program. There is a significant difference between the control and the experimental groups in the social performances level. The results have been discussed in the light of the theoretical and the applied theories, and its conformity with the previous studies.

Whether superior intelligence is associated with global lower resource consumption in the brain remains unresolved. In order to tap fluid intelligence "Gf" cortical networks, 50 neurologically healthy adults were functionally neuro-imaged while solving a modified version of the Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices. "Gf" predicted increased activation of key components of the dorsal attention network (DAN); and age predicted extent of simultaneous deactivation in key components of the default mode network (DMN) during problem-solving. However, there was no significant difference in mean levels of whole brain activation even when cognitively taxed. This suggests that the brain may dynamically switch resource consumption between these anti-correlated DAN and DMN networks, concentrating processing power in regions critical to enhanced cognitive performance. We term this mechanism of activation increase and decrease of these anti-correlated DAN/DMN systems, modulated by "Gf" and age, as "distributed neural efficiency". This may achieve local cost-efficiency trade-offs, while maintaining global energy homeostasis.

Although students in rural and migrant schools in China generally have not performed well, a share of each cohort has been able to thrive in school and to test into academic high school and college. To understand the origins of persistence, specifically, why some students learn more than do others, researchers have identified certain sources of the problem. Few studies, however, have paid attention to the role that low levels of cognitive development of students play in their academic performance. To address this gap, this study focuses on the role that cognition may play in terms of the academic achievement of rural students. We analyze data from more than 10,000 primary school students from private migrant schools in Beijing and Suzhou and from public rural schools in Henan and Anhui, using the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices test. Our results show high rates of developmental delay (about 33% of the students have Ravens scores that are less than one standard deviation lower than an international mean). Further, the rates of delay are large among all subgroups in the study, including rural children who attend migrant schools in cities and those who live in rural areas and attend rural public schools. The results also suggest that the cognition of students is highly correlated with their educational performance and, in fact, is by far the most important factor in their academic achievement.

Introduction Memory problems are more common with ageing and are related to the development of Alzheimer’s disease. This study investigated whether the intake of lactobacillus fermented Saccharina japonica (FSJ) extract improved the cognitive function during working memory processing and whether biomarkers were associated with task performance. Methods Eligible participants were assigned to either a control group or an experimental group by computerized randomization. Participants were asked to take either 2 capsules, once a day for 4 weeks of lactobacillus FSJ for the experimental group or placebo control capsules for the control group. The cognitive function was determined using the Beck depression inventory (BDI), Korean Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (K-WAIS), operation-word span task and Raven’s test-based quantitative EEG test. Levels of amyloid-β, superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the serum using the ELISA were also measured. Results There was no significant difference between these two groups in all cognitive function tests using the independent sample t-test. However, the experimental group showed a significant difference in the correct answer percentage, concentration and left and right brain activity of space perception as assessed by the Raven test-based quantitative EEG test by a paired-sample t-test. Biochemical measurements showed, a slightly decreasing trend in amyloid-β, whereas SOD level was not significantly different between groups (P > 0.05). Conclusion These results suggest that FSJ may have the potential to improve cognitive function as evaluated by the Raven’s test via, regulation of SOD antioxidant system. Our findings provide preliminary evidence of the safety of FSJ and its potential to improve memory.

Background Socioeconomic factors and nutritional status have been associated with childhood cognitive development. However, previous Malaysian studies had been conducted with small populations and had inconsistent results. Thus, this present study aims to determine the association between socioeconomic and nutritional status with cognitive performance in a nationally representative sample of Malaysian children. Methods A total of 2406 Malaysian children aged 5 to 12 years, who had participated in the South East Asian Nutrition Surveys (SEANUTS), were included in this study. Cognitive performance [non-verbal intelligence quotient (IQ)] was measured using Raven’s Progressive Matrices, while socioeconomic characteristics were determined using parent-report questionnaires. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated using measured weight and height, while BMI-for-age Z-score (BAZ) and height-for-age Z-score (HAZ) were determined using WHO 2007 growth reference. Results Overall, about a third (35.0%) of the children had above average non-verbal IQ (high average: 110–119; superior: ≥120 and above), while only 12.2% were categorized as having low/borderline IQ ( 3SD), children from very low household income families and children whose parents had only up to primary level education had the highest prevalence of low/borderline non-verbal IQ, compared to their non-obese and higher socioeconomic counterparts. Parental lack of education was associated with low/borderline/below average IQ [paternal, OR = 2.38 (95%CI 1.22, 4.62); maternal, OR = 2.64 (95%CI 1.32, 5.30)]. Children from the lowest income group were twice as likely to have low/borderline/below average IQ [OR = 2.01 (95%CI 1.16, 3.49)]. Children with severe obesity were twice as likely to have poor non-verbal IQ than children with normal BMI [OR = 2.28 (95%CI 1.23, 4.24)]. Conclusions Children from disadvantaged backgrounds (that is those from very low income families and those whose parents had primary education or lower) and children with severe obesity are more likely to have poor non-verbal IQ. Further studies to investigate the social and environmental factors linked to cognitive performance will provide deeper insights into the measures that can be taken to improve the cognitive performance of Malaysian children.

The nature of the mental processes involved in metaphor comprehension has been the focus of debate, with controversy focusing on the relative role of general analogical reasoning versus language-specific conceptual combination. In the present set of studies, we take an individual-differences approach to examine the comprehension of a variety of metaphors, some taken from literary sources, using several types of comprehension tests. In a series of metaphor-comprehension studies with college students, we measured both fluid intelligence (using the nonverbal Raven’s Progressive Matrices test) and crystalized verbal intelligence (using a new Semantic Similarities Test as well as the Vocabulary subscale of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale). Previous work has shown that measures of fluid intelligence are closely linked to individual differences in analogical reasoning, whereas measures of crystalized verbal intelligence are linked to language-specific abilities. We found that each measure had a dissociable predictive relationship to metaphor comprehension. The pattern of individual differences indicated that crystalized intelligence influences metaphor comprehension across a broad range of metaphor types, whereas individual differences in fluid intelligence mainly impact comprehension of more cognitively complex metaphors, such as those that arise in literary sources.

The brain controls the center of human life. Through the brain, all activities of living can be done. One of them is cognitive activity. Brain performance is influenced by mental conditions, lifestyle, and age. Cognitive activity is an observation of mental action, so it includes psychological symptoms that involve memory in the brain's memory, information processing, and future planning. In this study, the concentration level was measured at the age of the adult-early phase (18-30 years) because in this phase, the brain thinks more abstractly and mental conditions influence it. The purpose of this study was to see the level of concentration in the adult-early phase with a stimulus in the form of cognitive activity using IQ tests with the type of Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) tests. To find out the IQ test results require a long time, so in this study, a recording was done to get brain waves so that the results of the concentration level can be obtained quickly.EEG data was taken using an Electroencephalogram (EEG) by applying the SPM test as a stimulus. The acquisition takes three times for each respondent, with a total of 10 respondents. The method implemented in this study is a classification with the k-Nearest Neighbor (kNN) algorithm. Before using this method, preprocessing is done first by reducing the signal and filtering the beta signal (13-30 Hz).The results of the data taken will be extracted first to get the right features, feature extraction in this study using first-order statistical characteristics that aim to find out the typical information from the signals obtained. The results of this study are the classification of concentration levels in the categories of high, medium, and low. Finally, the results of this study show an accuracy rate of 70%.

The present study compared cognitive abilities and academic achievement of adolescents studying in three different school systems namely Urdu medium schools, English medium schools, and Cambridge system schools. The sample comprised of 1001 secondary school student. Cognitive abilities were assessed by Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (1960) and marks obtained by the students in the last annual examination were used as an index of academic achievement. Results showed that cognitive abilities of the students were positively associated with academic achievement of the respondents. It was further found that cognitive abilities and academic achievement of students studying in Cambridge school system was better as compared to those studying in other systems. Post-hoc comparison revealed that level of academic achievement of Urdu medium schools was lower as compared to English medium and Cambridge system of schools. The findings suggest that difference in schooling system influenced cognitive abilities and academic achievement of the students. Results further demonstrated that gender was a significant predictor of academic achievement in both Urdu and English medium schools. Future implications of the study were also discussed.

People can estimate their own and their romantic partner's intelligence (IQ) with some level of accuracy, which may facilitate the observation of assortative mating for IQ. However, the degree to which people may overestimate their own (IQ), as well as overestimate their romantic partner's IQ, is less well established. In the current study, we investigated four outstanding issues in this area. First, in a sample of 218 couples, we examined the degree to which people overestimate their own and their partner's IQ, on the basis of comparisons between self-estimated intelligence (SEI) and objectively measured IQ (Advanced Progressive Matrices). Secondly, we evaluated whether assortative mating for intelligence was driven principally by women (the males-compete/females choose model of sexual selection) or both women and men (the mutual mate model of sexual selection). Thirdly, we tested the hypothesis that assortative mating for intelligence may occur for both SEI and objective IQ. Finally, the possibility that degree of intellectual compatibility may relate positively to relationship satisfaction was examined. We found that people overestimated their own IQ (women and men ≈ 30 IQ points) and their partner's IQ (women = 38 IQ points; men = 36 IQ points). Furthermore, both women and men predicted their partner's IQ with some degree of accuracy (women: r = 0.30; men: r = 0.19). However, the numerical difference in the correlations was not found to be significant statistically. Finally, the degree of intellectual compatibility (objectively and subjectively assessed) failed to correlate significantly with relationship satisfaction for both sexes. It would appear that women and men participate in the process of mate selection, with respect to evaluating IQ, consistent with the mutual mate model of sexual selection. However, the personal benefits of intellectual compatibility seem less obvious.

To assess non-verbal intelligence and its relationship with nutritional status, nutrient intakes and parents’ education in school-children. A cross-sectional, observational study was conducted in children between 6–11 years, without any known chronic disorder or intellectual disability. Data were collected regarding parents’ education, anthropometry and dietary intakes. Non-verbal intelligence was assessed by Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices (RCPM). In 323 enrolled children (52.9% boys), a significant positive association was observed between RCPM scores and parents’ education (father’s rs=0.14, mother’s rs=0.22), height Z-scores (rs=0.14) and dietary intakes of zinc (rs=0.14), iron (rs=0.12) and folate (rs=0.14). Height in normal range, higher zinc, iron and folate intakes, and parental higher educational levels were associated with higher non-verbal intelligence scores.

The main objective of the study is to determine which variables comprise the psychological portrait of the perpetrators of road accidents, and on what basis the tendency to be involved in these accidents is most accurately predictable. The article is based on empirical studies conducted on 100 men (preliminary and periodic studies in the field of transport psychology and occupational medicine). The age of the surveyed drivers ranged from 19 to 70 years (average age 40). The tests included: Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices, EPQR, Device Piórkowski Type, and a Computerized Test Battery System – Polipsychograph. In comparison to „safe” drivers, participants of a road traffic collision were more extrovert and conscientious, less inclined to lie, showed greater motor speed (with increased impulsiveness) and higher level of general intelligence. They were characterized by better coordination. The results show that there are positive psychophysical features prevalent with drivers participating in road accidents, which suggests that as intermediary variables they have an influence on the level of self-esteem that is „responsible” for the propensity to risky behavior with its consequences.

Psychologists have long thought that an inability to suppress irrelevant information hinders our ability to solve problems. However, most studies have investigated analytical rather than creative problem solving. Here, we examine whether the way in which the brain processes task-irrelevant information affects its ability to solve complex and creative problems. Using well-established paradigms from the attentional-perceptual literature (the event-file binding task) and problem-solving literature (the Remote Associates Test and Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices), we found that greater attentional leakage, as manifest by strong perceptual distractor-response binding, might be beneficial for solving insight-based creative problems but not necessarily for problems that require pattern finding and logic. These results suggest a specific advantage for spreading attention more equally between relevant and irrelevant information in order to creatively ‘think outside of the box’. This delineates a beautiful mapping between the way our sensory systems interact with the external world and our brain’s formation of internal semantic networks that underlie our creative capacities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)

Analogical reasoning constitutes one of the ways the blind get to know the world; it enriches information and influences thinking. The purpose of the article is the presentation of results of research on reasoning using geometric analogies in blind pupils aged 10, 12 and 14. The study encompassed a group of 63 blind pupils and 63 seeing pupils. The study used the twelve series B matrices from the Progressive Matrices of John C. Raven. A detailed analysis of the dependencies between the variables permitted the determination of differences between groups of pupils in terms of reasoning using geometric analogies.

Background: Little is known about the association between adrenarche and cognition in general populations of children. We therefore studied the associations of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), androstenedione (A4), testosterone, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and adrenarche with cognition among prepubertal children. Methods: These cross-sectional analyses are based on baseline data of the Physical Activity and Nutrition in Children Study. A total of 387 children (183 girls, 204 boys) were included in the analyses. Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM) score was used to assess nonverbal reasoning. Serum adrenal androgens and IGF-1 concentrations were measured and clinical signs of androgen action were evaluated. Results: Higher IGF-1 among boys (β = 0.149, p =0.033) was related to a better Raven’s CPM score after adjustment for age and parental education. Adrenal androgens in girls or boys or IGF-1 in girls were not associated with the score. There were no differences in Raven’s CPM score between children with biochemical adrenarche (DHEAS ≥1.08 µmol/L; ≥40 µg/dL) or with clinical signs of androgen action and children without them. Conclusion: The results suggest that higher serum IGF-1 among boys is related to better cognition in prepubertal children. We could not provide evidence for the associations of adrenal maturation with cognition in prepubertal children.

Given the correlation between poverty and belonging to certain ethnic groups found by previous studies, the present study intends to apply a statistical technique to analyze the differences in intelligence on the basics of Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices performance between indigenous children and non-indigenous children from poor rural populations when indigenous children are “treated” as (equated) non-indigenous children in terms of nutrition, maternal education and schooling. This cross-sectional study used the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition to construct a counterfactual with which to compare both groups, distinguishing between differences due to certain characteristics of the child and those differences that are unexplained by the previous differences. The present study was carried out with a sample N = 1804 of 1460 non-indigenous and 344 indigenous children, aged between 5 and 11 years, from poor rural environments in Mexico who participated and completed a reduced version of the Raven's test of intelligence. The results indicate that, when cognitive performance was equated by age and height of the child, education level of the head of the family, help in school work, and care at home, the observed differences in such performance without being equated was reduced.

This study examines sex differences in reasoning ability assessed with Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices among 2,206 (1001 male and 1205 female) school students aged between 15 and 18 from urban and rural secondary schools in the Minya region of southern Egypt. There are no statistically significant differences in intelligence between males and females up until the age of 15. However, males scored significantly higher than females at the ages of 16, 17 and 18, consistent with Lynn’s developmental theory of sex differences in intelligence. In exploring the Egyptian education system and the social dynamics of the Minya region in more depth, we attempt to find various confounds which might offer explanations for this difference. However, we find that Lynn’s model is the most persuasive.

This study recruited a sample of 2,206 (1001 males and 1205 females) 15-18 year old students from urban and rural secondary schools in the Al Minia region of Egypt. They were tested for abstract non-verbal reasoning ability with Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM), and measured for head circumference and height. Intelligence was significantly correlated with head circumference (r = .243, p

Background: Previous research has demonstrated an association of scores on a visual test of nonverbal reasoning, Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM), with scores on open-set sentence recognition in quiet for adult cochlear implant (CI) users as well as for adults with normal hearing (NH) listening to noise-vocoded sentence materials. Moreover, in that study, CI users demonstrated poorer nonverbal reasoning when compared with NH peers. However, it remains unclear what underlying neurocognitive processes contributed to the association of nonverbal reasoning scores with sentence recognition, and to the poorer scores demonstrated by CI users. Objectives: Three hypotheses were tested: (1) nonverbal reasoning abilities of adult CI users and normal-hearing (NH) age-matched peers would be predicted by performance on more basic neurocognitive measures of working memory capacity, information-processing speed, inhibitory control, and concentration; (2) nonverbal reasoning would mediate the effects of more basic neurocognitive functions on sentence recognition in both groups; and (3) group differences in more basic neurocognitive functions would explain the group differences previously demonstrated in nonverbal reasoning. Method: Eighty-three participants (40 CI and 43 NH) underwent testing of sentence recognition using two sets of sentence materials: sentences produced by a single male talker (Harvard sentences) and high-variability sentences produced by multiple talkers (Perceptually Robust English Sentence Test Open-set, PRESTO). Participants also completed testing of nonverbal reasoning using a visual computerized RPM test, and additional neurocognitive assessments were collected using a visual Digit Span test and a Stroop Color-Word task. Multivariate regression analyses were performed to test our hypotheses while treating age as a covariate. Results: In the CI group, information processing speed on the Stroop task predicted RPM performance, and RPM scores mediated the effects of information processing speed on sentence recognition abilities for both Harvard and PRESTO sentences. In contrast, for the NH group, Stroop inhibitory control predicted RPM performance, and a trend was seen towards RPM scores mediating the effects of inhibitory control on sentence recognition, but only for PRESTO sentences. Poorer RPM performance in CI users than NH controls could be partially attributed to slower information processing speed. Conclusions: Neurocognitive functions contributed differentially to nonverbal reasoning performance in CI users as compared with NH peers, and nonverbal reasoning appeared to partially mediate the effects of these different neurocognitive functions on sentence recognition in both groups, at least for PRESTO sentences. Slower information processing speed accounted for poorer nonverbal reasoning scores in CI users. Thus, it may be that prolonged auditory deprivation contributes to cognitive decline through slower information processing.

This study reports a relationship between intelligence, head circumference, body weight and height. Intelligence was measured by the Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM), a test of abstract non-verbal reasoning, in a sample of 720 school students aged 13-18 years in Libya. The results show statistically significant correlations of test scores with head circumference, body weight and height in all six age groups, with a mean of 0.27, 0.28 and 0.25 respectively. All three anthropometric measures were independent predictors in multiple regression models.

Data are reported for the intelligence of a sample of 500 schoolchildren 9 through 13 years old assessed with the Standard Progressive Matrices in Sudan’s most northerly state of Ash Shamaliyah. The sample obtained a British-scaled IQ of 67 to 68, which is low compared to the scores previously determined for this country but close to scores typically found in its southern part. The age-related increase in cognitive test scores is relatively fast, even compared to the British norm sample, and indicates a different pattern than other studies from the Arabic world. However, this finding is limited by the short age span.

Gender differences on the Standard Progressive Matrices are reported for two samples of 13-18 year-olds in Libya (combined N = 1820). Males obtained higher mean scores than females but had lower variance. The later sample scored substantially higher than the earlier one.

Since his pioneer studies, Raven demonstrated the importance of qualitative and quantitative analysis of the performance in his Progressive Matrices Test, both in normative and clinical samples (Raven 1936, 1941a, 2000, Raven et al., 1995). He described four types of erroneous responses, named as follow: 1) difference error; 2) figure repetition error; 3) inadequate individuation error: 4) incomplete correlate error. Raven claimed that the qualitative analysis of the pattern of errors could be useful in the analysis of the level of reasoning used during the execution of the test: each error can have a different level of sophistication, the more sophisticated error is the more similar to the correct option (Raven et al., 1995) and each error gives some indication of the processes and the strategies used during the solution of the item(Raven et al., 1990). Moreover, there is a general agreement on the usefulness of qualitative error analysis to collect more information on the reasoning abilities. The present study aims to propose some findings of the assessment of the pattern of errors on Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices in a kindergarten and primary schoolsample and to propose some hints of analysis on the role of the evaluation of types of errors from a clinical point of view. We also discuss about the use of pattern of errors evaluation as a way to gain information about reasoning during intelligence assessment. We also discuss its use during the current COVID-19 pandemic, as a way tocollectas more information as possible about reasoning in each individual, even with the use of e-platforms, like the ones used as alternative to face-to-face assessment of intelligence.

In continual learning, a system learns from non-stationary data streams or batches without catastrophic forgetting. While this problem has been heavily studied in supervised image classification and reinforcement learning, continual learning in neural networks designed for abstract reasoning has not yet been studied. Here, we study continual learning of analogical reasoning. Analogical reasoning tests such as Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPMs) are commonly used to measure non-verbal abstract reasoning in humans, and recently offline neural networks for the RPM problem have been proposed. In this paper, we establish experimental baselines, protocols, and forward and backward transfer metrics to evaluate continual learners on RPMs. We employ experience replay to mitigate catastrophic forgetting. Prior work using replay for image classification tasks has found that selectively choosing the samples to replay offers little, if any, benefit over random selection. In contrast, we find that selective replay can significantly outperform random selection for the RPM task., To appear in the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshop (CVPR-W) on Continual Learning in Computer Vision (CLVision) 2021

Objective: Psychometric properties of Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices in a Portuguese community sample were investigated. Method: The sample consists of 522 people (250 men and 272 women), aged between 12 and 95 years. All participants completed an informed consent form and a battery of neuropsychological tests, including Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM), Rey 15-Item Memory Test, Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, and Rey Complex Figure Test. Results: The average in RSPM was 41.18 (SD = 12.03). The results showed that all sociodemographic variables (age, sex, education, profession, regions, and place of residence) significantly influenced RSPM scores. The reliability and temporal stability of RSPM were adequate. Conclusions: This study suggests that RSPM is an instrument with potential for use among the Portuguese population.

Given its practical implications, the effect of musicianship on language learning has been vastly researched. Interestingly, growing evidence also suggests that language experience can facilitate music perception. However, the precise nature of this facilitation is not fully understood. To address this research gap, I investigated the interactive effect of language and musicianship on musical pitch and rhythmic perception. Cantonese and English listeners, each divided into musician and non-musician groups, completed the Musical Ear Test and the Raven’s 2 Progressive Matrices. Essentially, an interactive effect of language and musicianship was found on musical pitch but not rhythmic perception. Consistent with previous studies, Cantonese language experience appeared to facilitate musical pitch perception. However, this facilitatory effect was only present among the non-musicians. Among the musicians, Cantonese language experience did not offer any perceptual advantage. The above findings reflect that musicianship influences the effect of language on musical pitch perception. Together with the previous findings, the new findings offer two theoretical implications for the OPERA hypothesis—bi-directionality and mechanisms through which language experience and musicianship interact in different domains.

The current study aimed to reduction of stuttering among children in the elementary school and improving their level of academic achievement using a program based on gradual increase in length and complexity of utterance, the study used the following tools: Coloured Progressive Matrices Scales, Family socio-economic level scale, Stuttering Severity Instrument, Academic achievement tests and Behavioral Program based on the Gradual Increase in Length and Complexity of Utterance. The participants of the study were 20 male and female children with stuttering in the elementary school whose ages ranged from (6, 4) to (9, 4) years and were divided into two groups (experimental – control). The study participants were match in the chronological age, the I.Q, the family socio-economic level, the stuttering severity and the level of academic achievement. The results revealed that the application of the program is effective for reduction of stuttering and improving the level of academic achievement among children in the elementary school.

Background. The analysis of developmental trajectories of visuospatial abilities in individuals with Down Syndrome (DS) remains an unexplored field of investigation to examine in depth. The study aimed to fill such a gap by examining changes in two visuospatial abilities: spatial visualization (the ability to manage spatial stimuli) and mental rotation (the ability to rotate spatial stimuli). Method. Eighty-seven participants with DS, aged between 7 and 53 years (forty-seven males and forty females), completed spatial visualization and mental rotation tasks. Changes in these two abilities were analyzed in relation to chronological age and developmental level, the latter derived from Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices. Results. Chronological age was linearly associated with spatial visualization performance, whereas mental rotation performance increased until 14 years of age and then decreased. Developmental level was linearly associated with increased performance in spatial visualization, the trend in mental rotation was segmented with an increase after 5 years of age. Furthermore, developmental trajectories in mental rotation depended on the rotation degree. Conclusion. Chronological age explains a modest quote of variance. Developmental level better describes changes in spatial visualization and mental rotation of individuals with DS.