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This field study using salespeople, sales managers, and physicians identified 14 abilities necessary for successful pharmaceutical salespeople, the prototypical missionary sales position. Six of the abilities were identified by all three parties and make up the core requirements while one ability was recognized by physicians and not the other two groups. Finally, this research offers suggestions, based on the 14 identified abilities, for recruiting and sales training efficiencies to improve salesperson performance. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

The authors compare several approaches to the evaluation of field salespeople to see if an improved analytical framework can be created. Based on performance data from 56 industrial salespeople, results suggest sales increase with experience and with the number of customer calls. The findings also provide support for the sales force career cycle and a new multi-attribute performance matrix. The use of a matrix approach allows mangers to review and compare the accomplishments of the sales force along several dimensions at the same time. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Salesforce control systems tend to focus on outcomes rather than behaviors. The use and effectiveness of behavior-based control systems is limited, particularly with industrial sales-people, who generally operate in the field much of the time where their behavior cannot be closely observed or supervised by management. The authors propose Behavioral Self-Management (BSM) as a means of controlling the methods salespeople use to achieve results. Specific BSM techniques applicable to selling and strategies for encouraging salespeople to engage in self-management are reviewed. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Of primary interest in this study was the determination of differences between males and female salespeople in the impact of supervisory reward and punishment behaviors on their job satisfaction, work motivation, and organizational commitment. The results suggest that male and female salespeople respond somewhat similarly to supervisory reward behaviors (contingent and noncontingent). However, contrary to expectations, males, not females, were more sensitive to punishment behaviors enacted by their sales manager. Specific guidelines are offered regarding how sales managers might best alter their supervisory behaviors so as to provide appropriate supervision to both female and male industrial salespeople. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

An analytical framework, which was developed in previous research, is suggested as a useful method for use by sales managers who want to determine the long-term impact of sales personnel turnover. The framework takes into consideration the most important costs of turnover, such as costs connected to recruiting and selection, training, and separation. The framework also pinpoints the most profitable segments which should receive attention to limit labor turnover. A case study of a pharmaceutical company with 237 sales personnel working 116 sales territories is presented to illustrate how the framework can be applied.

The views and judgments of 80 subjects in small groups were studied to ascertain the effectiveness of communication styles used by sales personnel. The study specifically analyzed the results of using Open and Dominant styles of communication, as defined by previous research. Study results indicate that respondents gave more favorable ratings to sales personnel demonstrating high Dominant/Low Open communication styles compared to sales personnel demonstrating high Dominant/High Open or Low Dominant/Low Open sales personnel. In lay terms, customers seem to prefer interacting with sales personnel who do not talk about themselves and who are not frank or talkative. Customers like dealing with sales personnel who are somewhat forceful and enthusiastic.

A study sample of 83 retail sales associates and their managers in 26 work groups and another sample of 116 insurance agents and their managers in 31 work groups were studied to see whether connections among managerially controllable elements and sales personnel performance are significant for individual sales personnel or for work groups as a whole. Elements examined in the analysis included satisfaction with performance, job congruence, and autonomy. Research results indicate that 20 relationships between salesperson performance and managerially controllable factors are individually based, but six relationships are significant for work groups as a whole.

Castleberry and Tanner (1986) introduced the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) conceptually into the sales literature. This study evaluates the scale with 189 salespeople using LMX-7 investigating its reliability, dimensionality and convergent and discriminant validity. MANOVAS were run to determine different variables which may differentiate the 'cadre' from the 'hired-hand'. Demographics, personality traits, and outcome variables were investigated. The results support the use of LMX for future research and offer practitioners ample 'food for thought'. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Previous research has found the proportion of time spent with customers is not related to several objective measures of concurrent performance. This article focuses on the results that emerged from a field study that investigated potential associations between time spent calling on accounts and annual sales and subjective sales performance. While time spent calling on potential accounts does not influence either measure of performance, time spent calling on established accounts is associated with subjective sales performance. One's career stage does not appear to moderate this relationship, although it is an independent predictor of how much time salespeople allocate to established accounts. Suggestions are made for future research and recommendations are offered for marketing practitioners. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

The accuracy of salespersons' perceptions of their customers can have a significant effect on corporate profitability. Aside from the impact on short term sales performance, inaccurate information from the sales force can adversely affect the quality of long term, strategic plans. Yet, a review of the literature uncovered only two empirical studies which examined salespersons' accuracy. The current paper presents a conceptual discussion and empirical study of the antecedents and consequences of the accuracy of the salespersons' perceptions. The paper emphasizes that the determination and improvement of salespersons' accuracy should be an essential part of the management of the salesforce. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

A close associate and I have been analyzing some very interesting data recently. Our research is related to identifying which specific competencies are most essential for a salesperson to have […]

Being in charge of too many customer sales accounts not only takes away from the effectiveness of a national account manager but also cuts into a company's profits, according to […]

The tech race is only getting more competitive. New kicks such as the Adidas_1, which features a microchip lodged in the shoe's sole, and the Nike Free, which recently unleashed [...]

Good salespeople have a lot in common--no matter what their industry. That's the finding of an ongoing research study that compares the practices of the top 50% of business-to-business salespeople [...]

Managers place extensive emphasis on employee motivation; in no type of organization is this more apparent than in sales organizations. As one sales manager said to us, 'Motivation is everything. [...]

[30] Belschak, Frank, Willem Verbeke, and Richard P. Bagozzi (2006), 'Coping with Sales Call Anxiety: The Role of Sale Perseverance and Task Concentration Strategies,' Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34 (Summer), 403-418. [Jaramillo] This paper relies on both cognitive and physiological perspectives on social anxiety to investigate how salespeople cope with sales call anxiety (SCA). The authors view SCA as a syndrome of interdependent cognitive and physiological components that can result in protective actions. The study indicates that salespeople cope with SCA using both cognitive and behavioral strategies. A cognitive strategy involves distracting the salesperson's attention from anxiety feelings by directing his or her attention to a specific aspect of the selling situation (task concentration). Conversely, a behavioral strategy entails confronting the feelings of anxiety by persevering on the selling situation (sales perseverance). A model is tested using responses from 171 salespeople who sell computer courses to businesses in the Netherlands. Results indicate that both task concentration and sales perseverance reduce protective actions, yet interaction effects were also present. Results suggest that salespeople should focus on the coping strategy that is most effective for the SCA element: sales perseverance in the case of high physiological sensations and task concentration in the case of high anxiety cognitions.

See also 19, 28, 29, 39, 40. [20] Stewart, Greg L., and Amit K. Nandkeolyar (2006), 'Adaptation and Intraindividual Variation in Sales Outcomes: Exploring the Interactive Effects of Personality and Environmental Opportunity,' Personnel Psychology, 59 (2), 307-332. [Robinson] Situational environment opportunities and differences in adaptability across individuals together influence variability in performance. This study employed referrals received from the central office to examine the performance variations that exist within individual members of a sales force across time. Data were collected from 167 sales representatives of an association that works with government bodies to lobby for and protect the interests of the association's members. Results of the study support that the majority of the week-to-week variance in performance outcomes resides within rather than between sales representatives. The study provided evidence that confirmed that the weekly variance in referrals explains a majority of the weekly variance in sales outcomes. In addition, both conscientiousness and openness to experience moderate the relationship between referrals and performance.

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See also 21. [1] Chung-Herrera, Beth G., Nadav Goldschmidt, and K. Doug Hoffman (2004), 'Customer and Employee Views of Critical Service Incidents,' Journal of Services Marketing, 18 (4), 241-254. [DelVecchio] [...]

The most important determinant of a consumer's decision to purchase is the recommendation of retail salespersons. In researching customers' response, management should heed the advice of their salespersons before developing an action plan.

Barker, A. Tansu (2001), 'An Examination of the Characteristics of Behavior Versus Outcome-Based Canadian Salesforces,' in Tracey A. Suter (ed.), Marketing Advances in Pedagogy, Process, and Philosophy, New Orleans, LA: [...]

This study evaluates the extent to which motor carriers are marketing oriented. A survey of motor carrier salespeople was conducted to elicit their responses of how well their firms meet shipper needs. Two cases were designed to test the situational assessment skills of these salespeople, verify their behavioral responses to different selling situations, and to examine their adaptability of selling strategies to different customers. The results suggest that improved assessment and training of salespeople may result in both a greater marketing orientation and improved profitability to the firm. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.), Motor Carrier Salespeople Can They Adapt? ABSTRACT This study evaluates the extent to which motor carriers are marketing oriented. A survey of motor carrier salespeople was conducted to elicit their [...]

Important concerns of sales managers are sales personnel's job satisfaction and performance, as well as aspects which affect those outcomes. A survey of 114 salespeople analyzed whether the supervisory behaviors of consideration and initiation of structure affect sales personnel who differ in: need for clarity, sales experience, self-esteem, and perceived performance. Results suggest that differences among individuals lead sales people to respond differently to supervisory behaviors. Specifically, experience, self-esteem, and perceived performance temper the effects of supervisory behaviors on sales personnel.

A model is investigated in which organizational formalization influences work alienation through role ambiguity, role conflict, and organizational commitment. Interrelationships are tested with data obtained from industrial salespeople and industrial buyers. Higher levels of formalization are found to be associated with greater organizational commitment and less work alienation. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Early research about selling has focused on the techniques involved, but recently more emphasis has been put on interpersonal interactions. The authors of this article have developed a classification system to organize the literature to make it easier to understand and use. The approaches are one-way - static, one-way - dynamic, two-way static, and two-way - dynamic. This research could have implications in terms of how sales personnel are selected and trained. Researchers can use it to classify the literature and indicate future directions for research.

Using attribution theory, this study examines the influence internal (salesperson) and external (situation) information has on sales managers' causal attributions of and reactions to a salesperson's failure to close a sale. The findings of the investigation suggest that sales managers were more likely to make internal attributions for failure when the salesperson had a poor, rather than a good, work history and external attributions when the salesperson had a good, rather than a poor, work history. In addition, sales managers were more likely to make external attributions for failure when the salesperson faced a high, rather than a low, task difficulty and internal attributions when the salesperson faced a low, rather than a high, task difficulty. Finally, sales managers responded to the failure by directing their attention at the salesperson or the situation. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

The role organizational commitment plays in salesperson behavior is unresearched. To increase understanding of both causes and outcomes of organizational commitment for salespeople, this study proposed and tested a path model. The model was drawn from the framework for studying organizational commitment proposed by Chonko (1986). The study results imply that salespeoples' performance is not determined by commitment or by effort, but that it is positively affected by the sales manager, income and education. Commitment was positively affected by anticipatory socialization, work satisfaction and manager satisfaction. Means for building commitment are discussed, as are situations where management should stress salesforce commitment. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

The subject of employee turnover is examined through a literature review and examination of 10-year turnover statistics provided by a large national sales organization. Results call into question the results of earlier studies that had shown strong association between turnover and attitudinal variables. Little evidence was found of such a causal relationship between attitudinal variables and turnover. Findings indicate that the longer a salesperson stays with a company, the less likely it is that he or she will quit. It is also suggested that salesperson turnover may be a function of factors external to the firm, that sales managers need an improved understanding of the reasons why individuals leave, and that not all turnover is necessarily 'bad' for a company.

Much of the literature on the problem of alcohol abuse in the nation and in the work place implies that salespeople should be particularly susceptible to problem drinking. Most discussion of alcohol abuse by salespeople has been anecdotal and speculative in nature, however, and little empirical research has been reported to support the anecdotes and speculations. This study examines the problem of sales force alcohol abuse and reports the findings of a nationwide survey of field sales managers concerning the extent of this problem in the nation's sales forces, the methods of dealing with alcohol-abusing salespeople, and factors related to problem drinking in the sales force. Implications for sales managers, sales management educators and trainers, and researchers in the field of sales and sales management are also discussed. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Career stage may be a factor in explaining observed variance in sales performance. Recent sales literature has focused its attention on the Walker-Churchill-Ford model but has neglected empirical investigations of the career stage perspective first introduced by Jolson. Selected propositions offered by Cron in a previous study are the subject of empirical testing performed in this paper. Findings indicate that the career stage variable may add a significant dimension to explaining some aspects of sales performance, and it should become an integral part of sales management research. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Despite an increasing interest in 'interactive' explanations of salesperson performance, few studies include the buyer's views of salespeople. This article reports the findings of a study of 249 buyers from the electric utility industry. Results suggest that buyers from three functional areas - purchasing, engineering, and operations - vary significantly in their preferences for salesperson behavior. The implications for salesperson role modification are discussed. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Researchers have used a free elicitation and validation empirical study to examine the task specific knowledge of sales personnel. Cognitive script methods were used to map experienced industrial sales people's procedural knowledge. Four different selling situations were examined for similarities in selling objectives, planning activities, and sales call interaction activities.

The authors propose that a general class of market response models with marketing parameter equations be used for the study of marketing interactions. They inventory alternative model specifications of marketing mix interactions, along with the estimation procedures, and compare two that are relevant in an application to the determinants of U.S. Navy salesforce effectiveness. The authors also illustrate the importance of modeling interactions as a basis for making inferences about marketing mix resource allocation. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

To date, no single performance appraisal technique lends itself to all the purposes to which performance appraisals should be applied, is impervious to the errors that confound appraisals, is legally defensible, and readily accepted by subordinates. Since the various performance appraisals possess different strengths and weaknesses, the authors, by combining Management by Objectives, Behavioral Observation Scales, and Forced choice Ratings, have proposed an evaluation system that meets the above-mentioned criteria. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

This article examines the status of women in professional selling careers. First, reasons women have not made more rapid movement into the selling profession are examined. Second, women's progress into professional sales jobs are explored. Lastly, suggestions are made for sales managers on how to attract and retain capable women in selling positions. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

An attribution theory perspective was applied in an experiment designed to explore the process of message acceptance on the part of prospective sales clients. Two-sided messages, incorporating unexpected negative information, were presented in contrast to more traditional one-sided appeals. Results indicate that the former approach stimulated a condition of expectancy disconfirmation leading to greater and more accurate recall of the sales presentation along with a more favorable product attitude when the presentation contained objective product information as opposed to intangible claims. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between insider-outsider sales management succession and organizational characteristics. The information presented is based on a mail survey of 84 senior decision makers involved in the appointment of a sales manager. The results indicated that frequency of insider succession is positively related to sales, technology, industry performance, and standardization. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

The impact of career stages on the components of salesperson motivation is examined. The components of salesperson motivation are valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. Self-administered questionnaires from 176 salespeople were used in the survey. The three-step process used to analyze the data consisted of multivariate analysis of variance, analysis of variance, and 'Scheffe' contrasts. The implications of the findings for management are discussed.

A study of salespeople working for a telephone marketing operation indicates that more effective (above average) salespeople have richer and more interrelated knowledge structures about their customers than do less effective (below average) salespeople in terms of both customer traits and strategies for selling to the customers. No significant differences are found between effective and less effective salespeople on the number of categories used to classify customers. A longitudinal study that tracked entering salespeople over time, from the less effective to the more effective stage, validates the findings of the cross-sectional study. Implications of these findings for sales management practice and the small but growing literature on real-world competence are discussed. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Empirical tests of territory sales response models have involved primarily a cross-sectional analysis of a salesforce at one point in time. Because such models often influence subsequent management decisions, the assumption that such models are stable over time is an important one. The authors consider factors that could influence the stability of such a model and use a five-year data base to explore the stability of a previously reported model of territory sales response. In this data base all the parameters appear to be stable over time. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)