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The object of this study is the process of generating an appropriate response by an intelligent agent when detecting and tracking an underwater electrical cable using a decision support system. The goal of the work is to develop the architecture of a decision support system for diagnosing underwater electrical cables and the main algorithms for its operation. To achieve the research goal, intelligent agents with a complex IPK architecture, which includes information, preferences (rules), and knowledge, were used. The combination of the structure of intelligent agents and the advantages of hierarchical knowledge bases allowed for the natural language representation of knowledge. The functional core of the system consists of four main agents, one of which facilitates the interaction between the user and the surrounding environment. To address the uncertainty in the cable's position on the seabed, the capabilities of fuzzy sets, describing its feature space with membership functions, were employed. The most significant results involve planning for the detection and tracking of underwater electrical cables, taking into account past decision-making experiences in similar cases and adapting them to the current situation through case-based reasoning. The importance of the obtained results lies in providing the decision-maker with a possible option for deploying an underwater vehicle based on accepted logic and rules for detecting underwater electrical cables. Further research is focused on implementing automatic target selection for intervention and developing a method for automatic modification of reasoning methods, preference rule bases, and operational knowledge.

The work focuses on wireless power transfer for electric vehicle charging stations. The aim of the study is to analyse the processes in the system of wireless magnetic resonance transmission of electrical energy using magnetic fields and to develop approaches to improve the efficiency of such systems. The set objectives were achieved by solving the following problems: the opera-tion of the wireless power transmission system with a resonance-tuned transmission coil, the de-termination of the optimal energy parameters of wireless power transmission on the example of a magnetically coupled system with a series-sequential resonant circuit. The main results of the study are as follows: it is shown that the necessary condition for obtaining the maximum power in the receiver is not only the tuning to the resistance of the receiving coil, but also the inclusion of the receiving circuit to a certain active load resistance, depending on the coupling coefficient between the transmitting and receiving coils, and analytical expressions are obtained, by means of which it is possible to calculate the load resistance at which the considered power transmis-sion system has the maximum efficiency; it is proved that the transmission efficiency of the se-ries-sequential resonant circuit is maximum in the single resonance mode and depends on the coupling coefficient. Significance of the obtained results: It is proved that magnetic resonance transmission of electric energy in the case of series-sequential scheme of wireless power trans-mission is more effective in comparison with series-parallel, at frequencies not exceeding 100 kHz, which has a positive effect on the operation of charging stations for electric vehicles in an urban industrial environment and, as a result, on solving the problem of compliance of such sys-tems with electromagnetic compatibility requirements.

The purpose of this work is to substantiate the use of probabilistic components of the availabil-ity factor of the power supply system (PSS) of the enterprise consisting of a electric power sys-tem and autonomous loaded generators, to calculate overpayments for electricity. To achieve this purpose, operation of the PSS during the last 5 years was studied. The PSS was considered as a restored system which has spinning reserve. The process of the PSS functioning was repre-sented by a simple non-branching graph with one repair team and described by systems of dif-ferential and algebraic equations. The solution of the latter allowed calculating the probability components of the PSS availability factor. The operating time of the PSS in a calendar year was calculated with a different number of serviceable generators. The method for calculating over-payment for electricity was proposed. The most significant result is the justification of the use of probability components of the PSS availability factor for assessing overpayment for electricity. The significance of the obtained results lies in the fact that the proposed formula for overpay-ment for electricity allows to estimate overpayment, identify main causes and recommend measures to reduce it. The reliability of the results is confirmed by the example of calculating overpayment for electricity for a real enterprise. The newly obtained indicators of generator reli-ability can be used in the analysis of overpayment by other enterprises, which have similar gen-erators.

Іndustrial synthesis of gas hydrates is a promising area for storage, transportation and utilisation of natural gas. The aim of this work is to evaluate the factors that affect the efficiency of gas hydrate synthesis, in particular, the influence of gas microbubble generation. To achieve the goal, the following tasks were solved: the experimental unit was developed and assembled; the experimental research methodology was proposed; experimental data were obtained and their statistical analysis was performed; a mathematical model of hydrodynamic and heat and mass-exchange processes in the nozzle was developed; оn the basis of the mathematical model, a calculation program was created which allows analyzing the nozzle operation in different thermobaric conditions under different hydrodynamic regimes. The most important are the results of experiments, which allowed us to determine the factors that have the greatest influence on the intensification of propane hydrate synthesis: the presence of gas microbubbles, liquid temperature, gas temperature, gas pressure in the reactor and others. The influence of individual factors and the presence of gas mixture microbubbles on the intensity of mass transfer processes of hydrate formation in the reactor was determined. The influence of nozzle design features on the efficiency of hydrate formation was analyzed. The significance of the obtained results is to expand knowledge about the influence of various factors on the intensification of gas hydrate synthesis. The research results can be used for designing industrial plants for gas hydrate synthesis.

Power system state estimation is a useful technique that enables the system to be monitored when sufficient measurements are not available. Although it has been practiced for a long time, distribution system state estimation (DSSE) is still challenging today and is being studied from various perspectives. This is because distribution systems are large, complex, and hard to be monitored entirely using adequate measuring devices. In this study, a novel approach is proposed for DSSE, and it is demonstrated that it is possible to improve conventional state estimation results by using proper statistical models of energy consumption behaviors. For that purpose, a feeder in the Civanlar test system is analyzed by adapting real energy consumption data into a virtual consumption region with 10 465 residents created in this study. It is observed that estimated bus voltage amplitude values are improved as a result of the analyses carried out for 16 scenarios in total, which consist of four seasons and two time periods. The scenarios are grouped into two cases, base system and system with solar energy generation, each containing eight scenarios. The obtained results are significant in terms of showing that it is possible to improve DSSE results by using a statistical approach.

With the growing adoption of light electric vehicles (LEVs), it is becoming increasingly important to optimize their propulsion systems. Brushless DC (BLDC) motors are widely utilized for their high efficiency, precise control, and strong performance. Nevertheless, their reliability faces challenges from various operational failures that can greatly affect the functionality of the vehicle. This study employs Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis to investigate and quantify the effects of specific faults in BLDC motors, with a focus on magnet and stator insulation issues. Two primary types of magnet faults—broken magnets and demagnetization—are explored. Our findings indicate that the severity of these faults correlates directly with adverse effects on motor performance, including changes in current levels, torque, and magnetic flux density. A simulated reduction in magnet coercivity by 30% showcases critical consequences such as increased current draw and failure to generate net torque, highlighting potential performance degradation under high-temperature conditions or other stressors. Additionally, the study examines the impacts of unbalanced single-phase short circuits, which increase harmonic content and torque oscillations, further degrading motor performance. By demonstrating the significant influence of these faults through detailed FEM analysis, this research underlines the necessity for robust motor design and proactive maintenance to enhance the reliability and efficiency of LEVs. This work contributes valuable insights into the fault dynamics of BLDC motors, providing a valuable reference for engineers and researchers in the field of electric vehicle propulsion systems.

Reconfiguration of the power distribution system allows for minimal real power losses and compliance with the required bus voltage limits of the power system. This paper proposes the network reconfiguration of the IEEE 33-bus radial distribution system using heuristic optimization algorithms. This problem-solving approach has the advantage of identifying the optimal system configuration solution by evaluating all possible solutions to the problem. The least power losses, voltage deviation, and compliance with the required bus voltage limits of the power system determine the optimal solution. To solve this problem, three types of heuristic optimization algorithms are used: Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Multi-Verse Optimization (MVO), and Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO). Using heuristic optimization algorithms to solve the reconfiguration problem, the active power losses of the power distribution system decreased by 46%. The optimal results obtained using the GWO algorithm are compiled in less time than other algorithms.

Among the different types of batteries, Li-ion batteries are the most preferred type due to the performance and safety features they provide. Battery management systems are needed to get convenient performance from this kind of battery and to extend the life of batteries as much as possible. For this reason, an accurate battery model is required for a good battery management system. In this study, The Partnership for New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) equivalent circuit battery model, which represents open circuit voltage changes, is taken as a basis and fractional order batteries models are created based on the PNGV equivalent circuit battery model. One of the most important subjects after creating the battery model is the determination of model parameters. At this stage, to make the problem simpler, the measured battery dataset is divided into sub-layers with a layered approach and the parameters are determined with analysis and data extractions on each sub-layer reflecting the different state of charge levels. This approach helped to obtain the accurate battery model with a steady state error of less than 5 mV and a transient error of less than 30 mV during each current pulse.

This study presents a comparative analysis of coupled and uncoupled inductors within an interleaved boost converter. The study includes the derivation of steady-state variables and magnetic equations for each inductor configuration. To mitigate input current ripple issues in the conventional boost converter, interleaving techniques are employed. Additionally, the volume concerns associated with interleaving are addressed through the application of inductor coupling techniques. An interleaved boost converter topology with an input voltage of 200 V, an output voltage of 400 V, and a power rating of 3700 W has been designed with different inductor configurations. The advantages and disadvantages of each configuration have been comparatively analyzed. The utilization of coupled inductors results in a more compact, efficient, and cost-effective design when contrasted with the uncoupled configuration. The magnetic flux densities of each inductor configuration are compared to evaluate performance outcomes. To ensure accurate core loss calculations in ANSYS Maxwell, core loss coefficients provided by the manufacturer were not directly used. Instead, new coefficients were derived by generating data sets at five different frequencies. The finite element method (FEM) is used for the analysis of the proposed inductors, and analytical loss calculations are validated.

Electricity is one of the most important elements for economic growth and development of societies in today’s modern societies. The research of electricity generation, knowing the size of the electricity supply, and the methods developed to meet this supply are among the important subjects of study today. With the increase in electricity supply and the increasing importance of environmental pollution, the use of renewable energy sources in electricity generation is increasing. In this study, Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), a type of recurrent neural network, is used to predict the energy production in a hydroelectric power plant. The LSTM method is one of the most popular recurrent neural network methods and is widely used in the field of deep learning. The graphical and numerical results obtained at the end of the study show the success and efficiency of the LSTM method. Ct represents the updated cell state. With ft , forgotten information is removed, with i t , new information is added. In the last step, the output layer is obtained by using the equations given below.

The rise in energy costs and growing environmental concerns are driving investments in energy-saving technologies, particularly in the maritime industry, including fishing, marine operations, and shipbuilding. Shaft generators are highly favored for their ease of installation, cost-effectiveness, reliability, and low maintenance costs as an energy production system of choice. These systems are well-suited to meet the energy demands of military vessels. As current energy costs and environmental pressures continue to escalate, shaft generators are recognized as pivotal technologies supporting energy conservation efforts. This study provides a comprehensive comparative analysis of the design and energy efficiency of two different shaft generator models employed on military ships. Using ANYSYS/Maxwell for design and analysis, the study evaluates power, torque, and efficiency across both models. The results emphasize that the efficiency of a shaft generator depends mainly on two factors: the number of motor poles and the operating frequency of the system. Moreover, the efficiency tends to decrease as the number of motor poles increases, but it improves as the system frequency rises.

Türkiye occupies a crucial position in harnessing solar energy due to its solar radiation and duration of exposure to the sun. To maximize energy yield from solar power, photovoltaic panels must be inclined at an optimum angle relative to the sun’s position. This study employs the photovoltaic geographical information system program to determine monthly, seasonal, and annual optimum panel tilt angles for seven selected cities in Türkiye. By utilizing this data, adjustments can be made to the panel tilt angle to optimize energy production. This research contributes to advancing solar energy utilization in Türkiye and similar regions, facilitating sustainable energy generation. The results indicate that adjusting the panel tilt angle seasonally and monthly is more profitable compared to using the same panel tilt angle throughout the year. This profitability increases to 4.20% with seasonal adjustments and can reach up to 5.05% with monthly adjustments. While the seasonal and monthly adjustments of panel tilt angles have the most significant impact on Bartın, they have the most negligible impact on Kastamonu. These findings underscore the importance of location and tilt angle selection when establishing solar energy facilities to assess Türkiye’s and neighboring countries’ solar energy potential.

Significant advancements have been made in the field of renewable energy worldwide. In light of these improvements, renewable energy will meet a substantial part of Türkiye’s energy needs in the future. Solar energy is abundantly present in many parts of the country, and grid-connected solar photovoltaic (SPV) power plants are gaining increasing importance. In the present study, the performance analysis of a 250 kWp solar power plant built at the Dicle University was performed in accordance with the performance criteria in the standard IEC 61724. Final yield, reference yield, and performance ratio were detected to vary from 1.94 to 5.98 kWh/kWp-day, 2.1 to 8.88 kWh/kWp-day, and 58 to 99%, respectively. The average annual performance ratio, capacity factor, and system efficiency were observed to be 83%, 1.23%, and 97.6%, respectively. This study also presents the calculated performance parameters along with such values as energy generation, global radiation, temperature, wind, and sunshine duration of the period concerned. The results presented provide insight into the longterm performance of the solar power plant under actual working conditions in Türkiye. The obtained results were also compared with the performance ratios of solar power plants (SPP) in other countries as reported in the literature. Thus, the performance ratios of SPP in different countries were comparatively assessed.

Optimizing the target grid framework during network reconfiguration is crucial for the recovery of the power system. Existing methods for assessing node importance and optimizing the target grid framework often overlook the impact of natural disasters， expected recovery benefits of nodes （ERBN）， and the necessity for expanded concurrent recovery zones. To address these challenges， a network reconfiguration method for power systems is proposed. First， the ERBN under disaster conditions are comprehensively evaluated， considering the recovery of critical loads， expanded available power， and the capacity for incremental recovery. The importance of both generating and non-generating nodes is unified based on their expected recovery benefits， taking into account the available recovery power margin. Then， a method for multi-time-point recoverable state simulation based on time sequence Monte Carlo simulation is proposed under disaster conditions to assess the importance of nodes and lines in the simulated grid. The grid framework is optimized based on this importance， transforming grid connectivity and loop network constraints into penalty functions that are incorporated into the fitness function. This approach eliminates the need for optimization adjustments to unreasonable grid frameworks， thereby improving the efficiency of the algorithm. Finally， the effectiveness of the proposed method is validated through case studies.

As the penetration rate of renewable energy sources increases in new-type power systems， so too does the complexity of the grid structure， leading to more diverse and complex power quality disturbance （PQD）. To accurately identify power quality， a method for PQD image recognition has been proposed， utilizing a two-dimensional time-frequency spectrograms and an improved YOLOv5. Initially， PQD data is projected onto a two-dimensional time-frequency spectrograms using the S-transform. This approach allows for detail-oriented representation of disturbances in terms of time， frequency， and amplitude via imagery. Subsequently， a YOLOv5 training network is constructed that integrates atrous spatial pyramid pooling （ASPP） structure and attention mechanisms. This design broadens the receptive field of the feature map， facilitating a comprehensive extraction of the disturbance image features， and enables PQD classification recognition through image detection methods. Finally， the accuracy and robustness of the disturbance recognition are validated using simulation data. The results evidence that this method offers a high degree of recognition accuracy. Moreover， the integration of the image recognition method enhances the visual representation of the PQD recognition results.

Short-circuit current calculations for wind farms typically employ equivalent models that neglect internal lines， transformers， and other critical factors， leading to reduced accuracy. Methods that account for these factors often rely on simultaneous voltage and current iteration， which complicates the intuitive verification of convergence. To address such issues， this paper proposes a short-circuit current calculation method that incorporates the internal structural parameters of wind farms. Based on the current characteristics of direct-driven permanent magnet synchronous generators （D-PMSG） under current-limiting conditions and the equations for the maximum node voltage of wind farm， a calculation model for short-circuit current in a wind farm is built. Then， Norton equivalence is applied to eliminate unknown current parameters， and the modified node voltage equation based on varying operating conditions is established. Finally， by implementing voltage iteration， a modified short-circuit current calculation method based on the modified model and the characteristics of the wind farm is obtained. Simulation comparisons demonstrate that the proposed method offers enhanced accuracy and improved convergence.

To achieve simple and reliable single-phase grounding fault protection on the AC side of VSC-HVDC systems， this paper focuses on systems where the neutral point of the converter valve's AC side is impedance-grounded. The zero-sequence fundamental component on the AC side and the common-mode component on the DC side are analyzed， and analytical expressions for the zero-sequence fundamental voltage and current at both the faulted and non-faulted terminals during a metallic grounding fault are derived. For VSC-HVDC systems utilizing third harmonic injection modulation， the phase characteristics of the longitudinal third harmonic voltage induced by this modulation are examined， and expressions for the third harmonic voltage and current are derived. Based on this analysis， protection criteria using the zero-sequence fundamental voltage and third harmonic voltage at neutral point are proposed to detect grounding faults and determine their location， along with the corresponding setting calculation method. Simulation results under various operating conditions show that the protection mechanism correctly activates when a grounding fault occurs at the protection installation terminal and does not operate erroneously when faults occur at other terminals.

In the remote operation of intelligent substations， failures often occur due to device or network malfunctions， or inconsistencies in information， consequently hampering operation and maintenance efficiency. To address this， the paper proposes a remote barrier localization method for intelligent substations using deep belief networks （DBNs）. Firstly， the whole process of remote control in an intelligent substation is decomposed to categorize the failures into three main types. Then， DBN-Softmax classifiers are introduced to extract features and train the classification model respectively， building a remote barrier localization model. Finally， failure types and telemetry information are used to precisely locate the faults. Engineering examples have shown effective validation of the method， including its merits of short computation time and high localization accuracy.

At present， distribution network framework planning plays a critical role in enhancing grid reliability and stability. However， the correlation between source and load outputs is often neglected， leading to a high rate of solar power curtailment， significant investment in the distribution network framework， and low line utilization rates. To address these issues， this paper proposes a framework planning method for distribution networks that considers the correlation and uncertainty of source and load output. Firstly， historical data on source and load is analyzed， accounting for the temporal autocorrelation of photovoltaic （PV） and load outputs. Latin hypercube sampling （LHS） and Cholesky decomposition are employed to generate source-load scenario sets. By incorporating their correlation， a load reduction method under these scenarios is designed accordingly. Secondly， the uncertainty in source and load outputs is considered to determine typical source-load scenarios and their probabilities. A multi-objective optimization planning model is developed for the distribution network. This model aims to maximize expected PV consumption， minimize the expected annual investment and operational costs， and minimize the expected value of line overload probability， while considering relevant constraints. The improved NSGA-II algorithm is used to solve this model and generate a distribution network framework planning scheme. Finally， the differences among Pareto frontier solutions and the impact of various parameters on the planning results are discussed， providing planners with alternative options for decision-making.

To more reasonably and accurately control the output of new energy in large-scale wind farm clusters in the scenario of multiple nested cross sections， an optimization strategy for active control of wind farm clusters considering differences in their integration performance is proposed. This strategy considers the influence of new energy generation， the command power deviation of each wind farm and the deviation between the command power and the actual power. In cases of not meeting the network safety constraints， forced trigger strategy will be implemented based on the differences in integration performance of wind farms. The simulation example verifies that this strategy can accurately control the active power output of wind farm clusters and effectively improve the consumption rate of wind power.

To address the issue of insufficient grid inertia support caused by the large-scale integration of renewable energy， a synchronous condenser model of a flywheel energy storage system， along with a control scheme， is developed based on permanent magnet variable frequency speed regulation. This model integrates a flywheel energy storage system with permanent magnet variable frequency speed regulation on the rotor of the synchronous condenser. By utilizing the kinetic energy of the flywheel， the inertia power response capability of the synchronous condenser is enhanced without altering its grid connection method or rapid excitation capability. Both the electromagnetic and mechanical models of the permanent magnet speed-regulated motor and the synchronous condenser of the flywheel energy storage system are constructed. Additionally， a dual-channel coupled power output model that includes the synchronous condenser and the frequency converter is established. Based on this， the paper proposes a power control strategy for synchronous condenser frequency regulation of the flywheel energy storage system using permanent magnet variable frequency speed regulation. Simulations under typical application scenarios have verified the feasibility and effectiveness of this strategy.

This paper focuses on the inverter station of ultra-high voltage direct current （UHVDC） transmission system with a hybrid cascaded structure. Based on its primary topological structure， adhering to the principles of protection without dead zones and easy fault location， and considering the installation position of measurement transformers， a protection partition suggestion and configuration plan are proposed. According to the location and severity of faults in inverter station， hierarchical block strategies including line-commutated converter （LCC） block， single modular multilevel converter （MMC） block， overall MMC block， sequential pole block， and step pole block are proposed， aiming to quickly eliminate faults and reduce the outage range. Finally， a real-time closed-loop simulation system is established based on the actual control and protection devices of the Baihetan-Jiangsu hybrid cascaded UHVDC transmission project and a real-time digital simulation （RTDS） model established according to the complete set of engineering parameters. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed protection scheme and block strategies are verified through simulation.

With the continuous increase in the installed capacity of gas turbine units， the coupling between electric grids and gas networks has become increasingly tight， forming an integrated electricity-gas system （IEGS）. As the proportion of renewable energy generation continues to rise and the discrepancy between peak and off-peak loads widens， the supply-demand imbalance in the IEGS becomes more severe. Therefore， the economic dispatch model of a two-stage IEGS considering the flexibility of gas turbine units is constructed. Firstly， given the constraints of gas network pressure on line pack， this paper proposes a flexibility evaluation model for gas turbine units that takes into consideration the impact of the natural gas system. It also establishes a modulation range index for the gas turbine units to assess their maximum adjustability. Then， the maximum adjustability of the gas turbine units is incorporated into the output constraints of the gas turbines in the power system. Based on the power system dispatch model， the paper aims to minimize the total operational cost. Lastly， the effectiveness of the proposed model is verified using the IEEE 39-node power system and Belgium 20-node natural gas system.

Wind farm clusters can enhance their operational profitability while supporting grid frequency regulation by participating in frequency regulation markets through the leasing of energy storage. To achieve this， a game-theoretic optimization bidding model is proposed for leasing energy storage of wind farm clusters， considering frequency regulation performance indicator assessment. The model consists of two layers： the upper layer models the bidding process in the frequency regulation market with multiple participants， while the lower layer models a leader-follower game between energy storage lessors and wind farm clusters regarding leasing price and capacity. In this game， the energy storage operator acts as the leader， setting the leasing price in response to the leasing plan of wind farm clusters， and the wind farm clusters， as the follower， adjust the leasing plan according to the price. Additionally， an evolutionary threshold public goods game model is embedded within the wind farm clusters to address the cooperation dilemma caused by selfish behavior among individual members. By united solution of the model， the bidding strategy for leasing energy storage capacity and participating in the frequency regulation market is obtained. The case study results demonstrate that the proposed strategy effectively resolves the cooperation dilemma and enhances the overall profitability of the wind farm clusters.

To address the issues of limited functionality and poor dynamic characteristics in traditional on-load tap changer transformers， this paper proposes a topological structure for a hybrid on-load tap changer transformer. This structure combines the efficiency and reliability of power-frequency transformers with the controllability of power electronic converters. By integrating back-to-back converters and designing corresponding control strategies， continuous voltage regulation and reactive power compensation for the on-load tap changer transformer are achieved. Additionally， the paper introduces a series voltage compensation method to provide fault protection for the load. Finally， an experimental model of the hybrid on-load tap changer transformer is built using MATLAB simulation software and an experimental platform. Both simulation and experimental results verify the correctness and effectiveness of the proposed topological structure and control strategy.

With the development of new-type power systems， the uncertainty in output， weak support， limited regulation capability of new energy sources pose significant challenges to the frequency security of power systems. Firstly， this review summarizes the new challenges faced in active power frequency regulation of new-type power systems and elucidates the issues related to their stable operation. Then， it outlines the frequency response models of new-type power systems， introduces safety and stability control measures to address frequency security issues， and analyzes the current research status and shortcomings in frequency security optimization and dispatch. Finally， it discusses and provides an outlook on key research directions， including online security dispatch of new-type power systems， low-frequency load shedding operation， and frequency security dispatch of multi-region interconnected grids.

Abstract Surface flashover is a crucial issue for the miniaturisation of electronic facilities in military, industrial, and aerospace engineering. The oriented hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) composites, due to excellent thermal and electrical insulating properties, show a potential application in high‐voltage power equipment, while the surface flashover performance of hBN composites dependent on oriented hBN texture is rarely reported. The effects of hBN orientation and contents on the surface flashover performances of oriented hBN composites are investigated. The isothermal surface potential decay of the oriented hBN composites was also studied. It is found that the charge transportation could be adjusted by the hBN orientation, thus regulating surface flashover strength. The DC flashover voltage of the in‐plane oriented hBN composites with a thickness of 15 μm reached the maximum of 27.6 kV at the hBN loading of 20 wt%, 14.5% higher than that of the pure resin. The carrier mobility of out‐of‐plane oriented hBN composites is about three times greater than that of the in‐plane oriented composites, indicating that the charges are easily transported along the hBN basal plane. The larger carrier mobility causes charge dissipation in composites near the electrode at the hBN basal plane parallel to the axis of electrodes and inhibits the distortion of the surface electric field on the composites, thus enhancing the surface flashover. Consequently, developing oriented insulators for high‐voltage applications and enabling an optimum insulation design would be beneficial because of the compactness and high reliability of power apparatus for use in power grids.

Abstract The authors focus on the impact of melt‐free radical grafting with hindered phenolic antioxidants (AO3052) on the electrical properties of polypropylene (PP) for DC cable insulation. The DC conductivity, space charge distribution and breakdown characteristic tests of grafting‐modified PP are performed by comparing unmodified PP. The results demonstrate that the grafting of antioxidants can effectively suppress space charge injection, owing to the deeper trap sites at the grafting molecule. The breakdown strength of the grafted PP is significantly enhanced from 30°C to 90°C and especially achieves a 5.3%–6.7% increase after the same DC‐prestressed time at 90°C. The surface electrostatic potential and molecular orbitals of the grafted PP are calculated. Simulation shows that the antioxidant introduces multi‐level local state traps that can effectively trap the injected space charge, thus decreasing the destruction of molecular chains by electrons and increasing the breakdown strength level. In conclusion, antioxidant grafting modification can improve the breakdown characteristics with or without DC prestress, and thus it appears to be promising in the application of PP‐insulated cables.

Abstract Recently, significant efforts have been exerted to replace mineral oil with environmentally friendly oils due to safety and environmental issues. However, there is a need to clarify the physical mechanisms behind the ageing impact of these oils. The authors use advanced optical spectroscopy techniques in correlation with dielectric measurements to understand the ageing processes in environmentally friendly oils as well as mineral oil. Firstly, different samples of environmentally friendly oils and mineral oil were utilised to investigate the ageing mechanism. The samples were subjected to different ageing periods using a thermal accelerated ageing process. Secondly, the severity of the produced byproducts due to the oil degradation is examined based on several measured properties representing macroscopic and microscopic categories. The macroscopic category was evaluated through dielectric properties, including breakdown voltage, dielectric permittivity, and dissipation factor. The microscopic category, on the other hand, was assessed using techniques such as ultraviolet–visible absorption spectroscopy and photoluminescence spectroscopy. These techniques enabled a deep understanding of the molecular‐level changes occurring in the oil under ageing conditions, thereby getting new insights into oil ageing mechanisms. It is worth mentioning that natural ester oil demonstrated the most favourable performance across various properties under ageing conditions.

Abstract Recently, ZnO‐based composites have been widely applied in the field of electric power. To meet the diverse application requirements, it is necessary to figure out the I–V characteristics of ZnO composites whose high‐voltage and ground‐voltage electrodes are arranged on the opposite sides with a certain horizontal distance. 30 vol%, 40 vol% and 50 vol% ZnO‐based silicone rubber composites were prepared. The horizontal distance between their electrodes was set as 50, 100, 500 μm, 1 and 2 mm, respectively. Results showed that with the increase of ZnO fillers volume fraction under a fixed horizontal distance of 100 μm, from 30 vol% to 50 vol%, the I–V curves shifted left, the leakage current increased and the switching voltage decreased. When the horizontal distance between electrodes increased from 50 μm to 1 mm under a fixed doping concentration of 40%, the I–V curves shifted to the right, the leakage current dropped and the switching voltage rose. The mathematical and physical models were established to explain the results. This work provides a referential significance for the practical application of ZnO composites, such as 5G folding mobile phones and power electronic modules.

Abstract Solid‐state transformers (SSTs) have applications in medium‐voltage direct current (MVDC) grids and compact power systems. High‐frequency transformer (HFT) is the core component of SSTs. High levels of high frequency high dv/dt voltage stresses challenged the integrity of the galvanic insulation of HFTs. However, dielectric thermal runaway and resultant electrical failure mechanisms in epoxy resin (EP) cast insulation remain unclear. Dielectric heating of EP across varying voltages, frequencies, rising edges, duty cycles and DC biases were measured and corroborated by simulation. The thermal runaway threshold mainly depends on the tangency point of the loss generation and heat dissipation curves below the glass transition temperature. Observations reveal that thermal runaway does not directly cause breakdown; instead, thermal decomposition above 200°C triggers discharge and eventual failure. Simulations demonstrate that temperature rise mainly depends on the average field within the electrode region and inter‐segment and inter‐layer distances within the HFT winding definitively impact insulation thermal runaway. By applying different criteria for MV and high‐voltage (HV) transformers, the reference electric fields for insulation design with unfilled and filled EP were obtained. For instance, limiting dielectric heating below 5 K at 50 kHz necessitates an RMS average field less than 0.44 V/mm, which is much lower than dry‐type transformer conventions. The authors prove the necessity of re‐evaluating the permissible field strength in HFT insulation design.

Abstract The electric field distortion caused by the accumulation of space charge in the insulating dielectric is easy to lead to accelerated ageing and even breakdown. In this paper, the space charge characteristics and the interfacial electric field change with time of silicone elastomer under different polarity DC voltages are studied. The results show that the homopolar charge injection is dominant in the silicone elastomer, and the electric field threshold is less than 4 kV/mm. The accumulation of homopolar charge weakens the interfacial electric field, resulting in the reduction of charge injection, and the interfacial electric field and spatial charge distribution gradually stabilise over time. In addition, the electric field at the interface does not decrease to the charge injection field threshold when it reaches stability. A time‐varying electric field model of the metal‐dielectric interface under a direct current field is derived and a calculation method for the time of charge accumulation to stabilise is proposed, based on the Schottky injection model and the relation between current density and volume charge density. The accuracy of the model is verified by comparing it with the experimental results of the stability time of silicone elastomer. This model is used to estimate the time when space charge accumulation reaches stability by means of the electric field threshold and the interface barrier, which can provide reference for the experimental measurement of space charge.

Abstract Internal insulation of high‐voltage power modules is facing interesting failure risks, including high temperature overheating, breakdown fault, material cracking etc., so it is imperative to urgently develop new dielectric materials with high thermal conductivity (λ), outstanding electrical insulation, and thermal stability properties. A method to construct controllable liquid crystalline cross‐linking networks based on the synthesis of biphenyl epoxy monomer and the change of curing agent structures and curing temperature is proposed. The uniform nematic rod‐like liquid crystalline domains were obtained by using 4,4‐diaminodiphenylmethane as a curing agent under a pre‐curing temperature of 105°C. The resulting film (abbreviated as TD‐105) exhibited λ up to 0.53 W m−1 K−1 and a dielectric breakdown strength of 57.69 kV mm−1, which showed a simultaneous enhancement of 178% and 16%, respectively, compared to traditional bisphenol A epoxy resin. Moreover, it also exhibited lower dielectric loss and magnitude of partial discharge while having higher glass‐transition temperature (190°C). A novel idea for the development of high‐performance epoxy insulating materials for the application of high‐voltage and large‐power electrical equipment is provided.

Abstract The authors introduce the intactness‐aware Mosaic data augmentation strategy, designed to tackle challenges such as low accuracy in detecting defects in insulation pull rods, limited timeliness in intelligent analysis, and the absence of a comprehensive database for information on insulation pull rod defects. The proposed strategy incorporates the YOLOv5s algorithm for detecting defects in insulation pull rods. Initially, the YOLOv5s network was constructed, and a dataset containing photos of insulation pull rods with white spots, fractures, impurities, and bubble flaws was compiled to capture images of defects. The research presented a data enhancement approach to improve the images and establish a dataset for insulation pull rod defects. The YOLOv5s algorithm was applied for both training and testing purposes. A comparative analysis was conducted to assess the detection performance of YOLOv5s against a conventional target detector for identifying defects in insulation pull rods. Furthermore, the utility of Mosaic's data augmentation technique, which incorporates intactness awareness, was evaluated to enhance the accuracy of identifying insulation pull rod defects. The research findings indicate that the YOLOv5s algorithm is employed for intelligent detection and precise localisation of flaws. The intactness‐aware Mosaic data augmentation strategy significantly improves the accuracy of detecting faults in insulation pull rods. The YOLOv5s model used achieves a performance index mAP@0.5:0.95 of 0.563 on the test set, distinct from the training set data. With a threshold of 0.5, the mAP@0.5 score is 0.904, indicating a substantial improvement in both detection efficiency and accuracy compared to conventional target detection methods. Innovative approaches for identifying defects in insulation pull rods are introduced.

Abstract The cross‐linked polyethylene insulated cables with corrugated aluminium‐sheathed are widely used in urban power systems. Recently, a new type of power cable fault has emerged, primarily due to defects in the buffer layer. However, there is a notable lack of effective evaluation methods for these defects in high‐voltage (HV) cables. Initially, a theoretical analysis of the gas generation mechanism in the cable buffer layer was conducted, identifying distinct gas products at different stages. Subsequently, the diffusion kinetics of gas within the cable was studied, highlighting the importance of gas in determining the state of the buffer layer. The authors then collected and analysed 60 sets of buffer layer gases from two operational 110 kV HV cables using gas chromatography technology. Combining these results with the findings from on‐site inspections, the characteristic gas components and concentration distribution under various defect conditions were summarised. The results found higher concentrations of CH4 in normal cables and defective cables, while there are higher concentrations of H2, CO and CO2 in defective cables, and the oxygen content decreases. The discoveries made in this research may offer a new approach for assessing the state of the cable buffer layer.

Abstract This paper proposes a method of impulse current generator modulated DC arc by combining the advantages of pulse and the RF to solve the low electron energy problem of direct current arc. Through experimental analyzing the electrical, spectral, and optical characteristics of the arc, the effect of impulse current generator (ICG) on improving electron energy is discussed. The results show that the ICG consumes more energy to enhance the strength of arc discharge, and therefore electron energy is increased in a microsecond scale. In addition, it is found that the electron energy of the arc discharge can be adjusted by varying inductance, capacitance, and discharge tube: increasing the inductance or capacitance can increase the electron energy firstly and then decrease it. In adjusting the three adjustable components, adjusting the inductor is the most effective method, followed by adjusting the capacitor, and adjusting the repetition frequency has the least effect. The reason is discussed, and it is believed that the results are related to leakage inductance and distributed capacitance.

Abstract Polymeric insulation is a critical component of high voltage systems. However, exposure to high electric stress can cause partial discharges (PDs) to occur and may result in the deterioration of insulation and lead to dielectric failure. These PD events are accompanied by the production of acoustic pressure impulses in the polymer. Detection of these acoustic pressure impulses can reveal the presence of PDs and locate their source. However, analysing the detected acoustic emission (AE) signal is challenging. The acoustic pressure source's nature and the propagating medium's properties, such as density, viscosity, and elasticity, significantly affect the propagating AE signal. The effects of the hardness of the polyurethane (PU) on the propagating AE signal are reported by the authors based on results obtained from laboratory experiments. It was observed that the decay rate in the magnitude of the acoustic impulse was high in PU at all hardness levels following an exponential behaviour. The analysis of the frequency spectra indicates that the higher frequency components attenuate more strongly with distance. These laboratory results can be valuable for engineers and industries as they provide valuable insight into how the physical characteristics of a material affect the propagation characteristics of AE signals during the detection and location of PD source using the AE detection technique.

Abstract Stress grading systems using non‐linear resistive coatings are a key component to suppress surface corona in the end‐windings of rotating machine. Compared to a sinusoidal‐fed motor, the high slew rate of the voltage at the flanks of the repetitive square voltages from the inverter cause large capacitive currents to flow in the main wall insulation. These large currents, if not properly considered in the design phase, lead to severe electrothermal stress of the grading system. Experiments and simulations were conducted on a stress grading system whose structure arises from limitation posed by the motor structure. Measurements performed with different rise times show that the maximum potential along the conductive armour tape (CAT) increases non‐linearly with increasing axial distance, and the potential at the edge of the CAT reached nearly twice the peak‐to‐peak voltage at 500 ns rise time, leading to corona inception. As metal plates are used in the machine to dampen vibrations in the end‐winding, similar plates were also fastened to the stress grading system, worsening the already inadequate corona suppression performance. The stress grading system was therefore modified, avoiding the surface corona while, at the same time, reducing the temperature in the grading system to acceptable levels.

Abstract In the article, a new type boost high‐voltage nanosecond pulse generator is proposed. The distributed inductance of the transmission line is utilised as the energy storage unit and cooperated with the variable impedance transmission line transformer to generate nanosecond pulses with extremely high‐voltage gain. What’s more, the isolation effect caused by the transmission line time delay is applied to achieve modular stacking. The demand for charging power supply can be greatly reduced, and few switches are used. Finally, the topological principle is verified by experiments, and a prototype of the five‐stage stacking prototype is built. With the charging voltage of 28 V, the generator can output pulse with a voltage amplitude of 10 kV and pulse width of 12 ns whose voltage gain is up to 357 times.

Abstract Innovative test methods are required to keep up with the increased demand for insulation materials which can withstand the high‐frequency square‐wave voltages generated by power‐electronic equipment. Test systems using high‐voltage, high‐frequency transformers have proven versatile and easy to realise. The authors investigate the application of amorphous cut cores in such transformers. Analytical and numerical models for the transformer and its frequency response are developed, aiding the design process. An amorphous core‐based transformer is designed for 8 kVpk output at 100 kHz and compared to two previous designs based on ferrite cores. The frequency and pulse response, as well as the high‐voltage and thermal performance, are evaluated. The comparison shows that while the low parasitics of the amorphous‐based transformer allow for superior frequency response, they are unsuitable for long‐duration tests with high pulse repetition frequencies (25–100 kHz) due to increased core losses. The partial discharge inception and flashover voltage are comparable to the ferrite‐based transformers.

Abstract Accurate surface charge inversion can guide the research on surface modification of insulators in GIS/GIL. The current inversion algorithms have disadvantages of high computational cost and low accuracy. Based on that, the integral equation method (IEM) is proposed to calculate the transformation matrix. Compared with the traditional analytical method (AM), IEM has a simple calculation process. The calculation speed of IEM is much faster than that of AM. To suppress the numerical divergence in IEM, the Tikhonov regularisation method is introduced and Tikhonov‐IEM is proposed. For square insulators, compared to IEM, the peak‐mean square error (PMSE) is reduced by about 40 percent. However, Tikhonov‐IEM is not suitable for basin insulators. Therefore, the least square method (LSM) is introduced and the LSM‐IEM is proposed. For basin insulators, compared to IEM, the PMSE is reduced by about 30 percent. Finally, the accuracy of the algorithms is verified by physical tests.

Abstract Partial discharge (PD) detection of cable terminals is crucial for the safe operation of the traction power system in trains. However, similar PD signals in complex train‐operating environments cause difficulty to recognise the insulation defects. Therefore, a PD signal image transformation recognition method is proposed for PD detection of cable terminal defects to identify defects in cable terminals with similar PD characteristics accurately. In the proposed method, the raw PD signals are firstly transformed to images via the Gramian angular field (GAF) representation. This can reveal the discriminative characteristics embedded in the original PD signals and subsequently facilitate differentiating the PD sources, which exhibit similar characteristic in the time domain. The obtained GAF representation of PD signals (named as PD GAF images) is extracted from local and global features to train an efficient MobileVIT model, which is then utilised to identify similar types of PD sources in cable terminals. The results show that the proposed method achieves 97.5% recognition accuracy in the field experiment, which is superior to other methods.

Abstract Due to the complex structure and large size of large‐capacity oil‐immersed power transformers, it is difficult to predict the winding temperature distribution directly by numerical analysis. A 180 MVA, 220 kV oil‐immersed self‐cooling power transformer is used as the research object. The authors decouple the internal fluid domain of the power transformer into four regions: high voltage windings, medium voltage windings, low voltage windings, and radiators through fluid networks and establish the 3D fluid‐temperature field numerical analysis model of the four regions, respectively. The results of the fluid network model are used as the inlet boundary conditions for the 3D fluid‐temperature numerical analysis model. In turn, the fluid resistance of the fluid network model is corrected according to the results of the 3D fluid‐temperature field numerical analysis model. The prediction of the temperature distribution of windings is realised by the coupling calculation between the fluid network model and the 3D fluid‐temperature field numerical analysis model. Based on this, the effect of the loading method of the heat source is also investigated using the proposed method. The hotspot temperatures of the high‐voltage, medium‐voltage, and low‐voltage windings are 89.43, 86.33, and 80.96°C, respectively. Finally, an experimental platform is built to verify the results. The maximum relative error between calculated and measured values is 4.42%, which meets the engineering accuracy requirement.

Abstract Line‐commuted converter (LCC)–voltage source converter (VSC) hybrid high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission system is an innovative technology, the existing LCC and VSC protection require setting, and it is difficult to be directly applied in the LCC–VSC hybrid HVDC, which is a serious problem in practical engineering. A novel linear regression density peak clustering (LRDPC) approach is introduced for transmission line protection. LRDPC employs Least Squares linear regression to compute the fault current slope, followed by density peak clustering for fault type identification. The proposed protection structure is straightforward and setting‐less, eliminating the need for fault pole selection elements and classification thresholds. Validation on the Kun‐Liu‐Long LCC–VSC HVDC RTDS system demonstrates the method's effectiveness in identifying diverse faults under varying conditions, including fault types, locations, resistances, and signal‐to‐noise ratios. Notably, it remains robust against fault impedance (600 Ω) and noise interference (20 dB).

Abstract This study focuses on the degradation behaviour of metallised film capacitors, which are the essential components for the stability of converter valves in flexible ultra‐high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems. Through systematic experimentation, we investigated the failure mechanisms of MFCs under HVDC fields with superimposed harmonics, considering both equipment and material perspectives. The experiments subjected capacitors to 500 h of ageing under two conditions: a DC/AC‐superimposed field with a constant DC component of 290 kV/mm and an AC ripple rate varying from 12% to 28%, and a control group aged solely under a DC field. Our findings indicate that capacitors aged under the DC/AC‐superimposed field exhibited shorter lifespans and more significant capacitance loss than those aged under only the DC field. This difference in performance is primarily attributed to the distinct electrode loss behaviours observed under each ageing condition, which are key factors in the capacitors' capacitance decay. Moreover, the biaxially oriented polypropylene films in the DC‐aged samples showed more severe deterioration, characterised by more noticeable molecular chain scission and reduced breakdown strength, compared to those aged under the DC/AC superimposed field. This difference is partly due to the moderate temperature increase caused by harmonics, which benefits the aggregation structure, and partly to the reduced molecular structure damage from the AC field.

Abstract To improve our knowledge of the spatio‐temporal correspondence between radar reflectivity and VLF/LF total lightning data, this paper proposes indexes to quantify the horizontal distribution and temporal evolution characteristics between radar composite reflectivity images and total lightning density map, lightning clusters and radar cells with different radar reflectivity thresholds (30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 dBZ), respectively. It is found that the number of radar grid cells with radar reflectivity over 30 dBZ is ten times the number of lightning grid cells. At the identification stage, the lightning activity regions in a radar cell account for less than 30% using thresholds of 30, 35 and 40 dBZ, respectively, and the radar cell has more than one lightning cluster, which means that the mesoscale convective systems typically have more than one draft, and drafts are only small part of the convection. The majority of the centroid deviations is less than 10 km, indicating that there are some shifts between electrically active regions and convective regions. Results suggest that VLF/LF total lightning data are consistent with radar data and total lightning data can be used individually on a smaller spatio‐temporal scale than radar data.

Semakin meningkatnya pengguna smartphone serta lengkapnya fitur-fitur yang tersedia di beragam merek smartphone, memungkinkan pengguna dengan mudah dalam bertransaksi hanya dengan sekali sentuhan layar. Mobile commerce adalah model layanan yang sedang berkembang sehingga, memungkinkan orang untuk memesan dan membayar barang dengan mudah menggunakan perangkat seluler. Pemesanan menu di Kantin disebuah institusi saat ini masih banyak menggunakan metode tradisional, yang mengakibatkan beberapa masalah: antrean pembayaran yang lama karena proses pengembalian dana, kasus pelanggan yang melarikan diri tanpa membayar, kekeliruan pesanan antara meja, pesanan yang terlupakan, utang siswa saat memesan, dan tidak adanya menu serta daftar harga di beberapa kantin. Penelitian ini mengembangkan sistem E-Kantin berbasis Android dengan teknologi NFC. Penelitian ini dikategorikan sebagai penelitian kualitatif yang dilakukan dengan metodologi Penelitian dan Pengembangan (R&D). Penggunaan Teknologi NFC sangat sesuai dalam objek riset ini karena setiap tag NFC memiliki identitas unik, sehingga duplikasi menjadi tidak mungkin. Selain itu, NFC beroperasi dalam jarak dekat, meningkatkan keamanan dengan membuat penyadapan menjadi sulit. Aplikasi ini memungkinkan pengguna untuk melakukan pemesanan, melakukan pembayaran untuk barang, dan mengisi saldo melalui metode tunai atau transfer. Secara bersamaan, admin dapat memverifikasi saldo, mengonfirmasi pesanan, menambah atau mengubah menu, dan menerima notifikasi terkait permintaan validasi saldo saat masuk sebagai admin. Aplikasi diujikan dengan metode blackbox. Hasil pengujian dan implementasi menunjukkan semua fungsionalitas sistem beroperasi dengan baik. Pengujian yang dilakukan dengan menempatkan pesanan simultan dari beberapa akun berhasil dieksekusi, dengan semua hasil pesanan tercatat dalam daftar pesanan bersama nomor pesanan masing-masing. Performa waktu rata-rata dalam mengakses setiap fitur adalah 2 Menit.

The automatic system model uses a Solar Charge Controller (SCC) to turn off the solar panel system at the minimum battery point so that the battery is safe and durable and an Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) to automatically transfer the electricity network from State Electricity Company or Grid or solar panels. In this study, Solar Panel Priority Grid electricity is used if the solar panel is insufficient and hybrid system with solar panel priority with 2 cut out battery usage. The results of this study are 450WP Solar Panel, 100A SCC MPPT, 12V/100Ah Battery, and 3000 Watt Modified Sine Wave Inverter, Miniature Circuit Breaker, Contactor, Relay Switch, Time Delay Relay and Indicators. The results of the switching process test between the Solar Power Plant source and grid with ATS control can run automatically in Grid Priority Mode, meaning Solar Power Plant as a backup, or Solar Power Plant Priority Mode where the grid source is used as a power backup system. In the Battery Capacity Optimization System, Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD) Protection can work well, namely it can cut off the voltage from the inverter if the battery is in a low voltage state at a rating below 10.8 Volts, Auto Cut Charging Protection testing can charge the battery up to 13.8 Volts and Cycle Use, namely the process of this system can work to store energy while releasing energy to run the load. The results of this study can be used as a reference for the best choice of the most efficient Solar Power Plant system.

Transformator daya adalah perangkat penting dalam sistem listrik yang berperan dalam meningkatkan atau menurunkan tegangan AC. Gangguan pada transformator dapat menyebabkan pemadaman yang meluas, oleh karena itu, keandalan transformator perlu dipertahankan. Salah satu penyebab gangguan pada transformator adalah kera, yang merupakan binatang yang sangat mempengaruhi kinerja perangkat tersebut. Kera sering kali masuk ke wilayah transformator yang dapat menyebabkan terjadinya hubung singkat hingga ledakan pada transformator. Maka, diperlukan sistem keamanan khusus guna mencegah gangguan yang disebabkan oleh kehadiran hewan kera pada transformator. Beberapa kasus di Indonesia bahwa salah satu penyebab padam nya listrik karna ulah hewan yang mengakibatkan hingga ledakan trafo. PT. PLN UPT Kaltimtara merupakan perusahaan distribusi listrik berada di Balikpapan yang masih banyak hutan disekitar nya yang rentan dengan gangguan hewan pada trafo gerdu induk. Kebiasaan operator untuk mengusir kera atau monyet yaitu dengan berteriak dan melempari batu setiap pagi hingga sore. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode eksperimen yang bertujuan untuk menciptakan inovasi baru untuk mengusir kera perusak trafo menggunakan PIR (Passive Infra Red) Motion Sensor, gelombang frekuensi, ultrasonik dan Sirine Alarm. Ketika ada kera/monyet masuk di area trafo gardu induk dan terdeteksi sensor pir serta ultrasinik, maka mikrokontroler mendapat inputan dari sensor dan memberikan output gelombang frekuensi untuk mengusir kera. Sensor ultrasonik dapat menyalakan buzzer klakson 220 Volt AC ketika sensor ultrasonik mendeteksi adanya objek di jarak 1 sampai 4 meter dan arduino uno mengiriman perintah ke relay menjadi kondisi High apabila ultrasonik mendeteksi dan Klakson 220Volt AC akan menyala. Sensor PIR dapat bekerja dengan baik dalam jangkauan 1 sampai 6 meter. Memungkinkan arduino uno untuk mengirimkan perintah dengan baik ke modul pembangkit frekuensi dan mengaktifkan Speaker Tweeter pada frekuensi 4K Hz sampai 49,94K Hz.

Penyakit pada tanaman cabai dapat mengancam produktivitas dan kualitas hasil panen jika tidak terdeteksi dan diatasi secara tepat waktu. Untuk meningkatkan deteksi dini penyakit pada tanaman cabai, kami mengembangkan sistem klasifikasi menggunakan arsitektur VGG16, sebuah jaringan saraf konvolusional yang telah terbukti efektif dalam pengolahan gambar kompleks. Penelitian ini memanfaatkan dataset citra daun cabai yang terdiri dari beberapa kelas penyakit yang umum dijumpai, termasuk Healthy, Yellowish, whitefly, leafcurl dan leafspot. Citra-citra ini diolah dan dinormalisasi untuk pelatihan dan pengujian model. Arsitektur VGG16 digunakan sebagai model dasar, yang telah dipre-trained pada dataset ImageNet untuk meningkatkan kinerja klasifikasi. Proses pelatihan model dilakukan dengan memanfaatkan teknik transfer learning, di mana lapisan-lapisan akhir dari VGG16 disesuaikan dengan dataset penyakit daun cabai. Selama pengujian, sistem berhasil mengenali dan mengklasifikasikan penyakit pada daun cabai dengan tingkat akurasi yang tinggi. Hasil evaluasi menunjukkan bahwa arsitektur VGG16 mampu mengenali berbagai penyakit dengan akurasi rata-rata sebesar 0.9962%. sedangkan waktu komputasi yang dibutukan adalah 7 detik.