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Research on the effect of acute stress and high levels of glucocorticoids on memory has largely focused on memory tasks involving the medial temporal lobe (e.g., declarative memory). Less is known, however, about the effects of stress and glucocorticoids on more strategic memory processes regulated by the prefrontal cortex (e.g., source monitoring). In the current study, the authors investigated whether exposure to acute psychosocial stress would result in altered source monitoring performance relative to the performance of a nonstressed control group. To this end, the authors assigned nonsmoking, healthy, young men to either a stress (n = 22) or a control (n = 18) condition, after which the men were given an internal source monitoring test. Results show that relative to control participants, stressed participants made fewer source monitoring errors. This study suggests that stress may have differential effects on memory, depending on whether the memory test is regulated by the prefrontal cortex or the medial temporal lobe.

Objectives. Eating-disordered subjects feel unattractive, and the current idea is that this feeling reflects a distorted body image. A distorted body image requires a mismatch between the negative self-judgments and more objective judgments of the body. Design and methods. To examine whether eating-disordered subjects have valid reasons for their feelings of unattractiveness, the body images of eating-symptomatic subjects and control models were compared with inter-subjective evaluations of these bodies given by two community samples (panels; N = 72, N = 88). Results. Although the objective body sizes of the eating-symptomatic subjects were in the normal range and not different from control bodies, the first panel rated the (headless) bodies of the eating-symptomatic subjects as less attractive. This finding was replicated with the second panel. There was also large agreement between the eating-symptomatic subjects and the second panel on the specific body parts that were indicated as unattractive. Contrary to the eating-symptomatic subjects, the control models showed a strong positively biased perception of their own attractiveness: they rated their own bodies more positively than others rated them. Conclusion. Consensual validation of the harsh body appraisals of eating-symptomatic subjects was found. Interestingly, the normal controls were the ones that showed a biased body image; they rated themselves far more attractive than other people rated them. These data suggest that the real problem in eating disorders is not a distorted body image but a lack of a distorted body image, that is, the lack of a self-serving body-image bias.

Summary Brewin and Andrews recently argued that expert witnesses should be cautious when informing the legal arena about the potential for false memories. We argue that memory researchers—whose studies often were inspired by miscarriages of justice due to erroneous statements provided by witnesses, victims, or defendants—can and should emphasize the base rates of false memories. After all, even if Brewin and Andrews' estimate of 15% is an accurate higher bound estimate of false memories in real life cases, neglecting the science of false memories could lead to many more unnecessary miscarriages of justice.Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Brewin and Andrews (2016) reviewed the literature on false memory propensity for childhood events. In this commentary, we critically evaluate their basic claim that proneness to false memories of childhood experiences is more limited than has been articulated in the literature. We show that Brewin and Andrews were selective in their inclusion of false memory studies, thereby ignoring relevant research related to autobiographical false memories. Equally important, and in contrast to what Brewin and Andrews claim, we show that implanted false memories elicited by misinformation are characterized by high confidence.

Item does not contain fulltext Frontal alpha asymmetry, a biomarker derived from electroencephalography (EEG) recordings, has often been associated with psychological adjustment, with more left-sided frontal activity predicting approach motivation and lower levels of depression and anxiety. This suggests high relevance to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a disorder comprising anxiety and dysphoria symptoms. We review this relationship and show that frontal asymmetry can be plausibly linked to neuropsychological abnormalities seen in PTSD. However, surprisingly few studies (k=8) have directly addressed frontal asymmetry in PTSD, mostly reporting that trait frontal asymmetry has little (if any) predictive value. Meanwhile, preliminary evidence suggest that state-dependent asymmetry during trauma-relevant stimulation distinguishes PTSD patients from resilient individuals. Thus, exploring links between provocation-induced EEG asymmetry and PTSD appears particularly promising. Additionally, we recommend more fine-grained analyses into PTSD symptom clusters in relation to frontal asymmetry. Finally, we highlight hypotheses that may guide future research and help to fully apprehend the practical and theoretical relevance of this biological marker.

Asymmetry in frontal electrical activity has been suggested to index tendencies in affective responding and thus may be associated with hormonal stress responses. To assess the functional role of frontal asymmetry (FA) in stress, we measured FA at rest and following exposure to acute stress induced with the Maastricht Acute Stress Task (MAST; N = 70) in the standard 8-13 Hz band as well as based on individual alpha frequency (IAF) band. IAF-based resting FA(F4-F3) was associated with the stress induced neuroendocrine response, such that left individual frontal activity predicted smaller total cortisol increases in response to the MAST. Like previous studies, we found resting left-sided FA(F8-F7) to predict trait behavioural activation measured with the BIS/BAS scales. FA remained unaffected by stress-induced cortisol response. These findings suggest that individual FA might reflect a trait-like characteristic that moderates the stress response. Our results underscore the utility of IAF in studying individual differences in stress responding. (C) 2014 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved.

Coping with the demands of pain diminishes self-regulatory capacity and causes self-regulatory fatigue, which then leads to deteriorated executive task performance. It has been suggested that optimism can counteract the depletion of self-regulatory capacity. This study employed a 2 (optimism/no optimism) x 2 (pain/no pain) between-subjects design to explore whether (1) experimentally induced pain (cold pressor task) deteriorates subsequent executive task performance, and (2) whether an optimism induction can counteract this sustained deteriorating effect of pain on executive task performance. Results indicated that although pain led to significantly worse performance on the executive functioning task in the no optimism condition, this sustained deteriorating effect of pain on task performance was abolished in the optimism condition. This finding is imperative because it suggests that optimism may be an important factor to implement in current psychological treatment approaches to diminish the negative impact of chronic pain on the ability to function in daily life. (C) 2013 International Association for the Study of Pain. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A middle-aged man presented with Ganser symptoms. He had been involved in a car crash and was seeking disability insurance benefits. Extensive testing with malinger instruments revealed that he performed below chance on simple memory tests and endorsed a variety of nonexistent symptoms. With this in mind, the authors collected collateral information which showed that the patient was involved in high level sports activities that were difficult to reconcile with the severe cognitive dysfunctions that he claimed to suffer from. The case demonstrates that Ganser-like symptoms deserve close scrutiny, preferably with malinger tests.

Evidence suggests that asymmetry in frontal electrical activity predicts responses to aversive experiences, such that higher left-sided activity might dampen responses to trauma reminders. We measured frontal asymmetry at rest and during viewing of a trauma film, and assessed startle responses to film-reminder images. To explore potential moderators, we compared two films (Study 1; N = 64) and modulated reappraisal (Study 2; N = 72). As expected, left frontal activation during film viewing predicted dampened responses in individuals who viewed a staged road accident. However, this effect tended to be reversed when a genocide documentary was used. In Study 2, all participants viewed the genocide film. Left frontal activity at rest again predicted higher startle responses, while reappraisal did not moderate the effects. Thus, the type of trauma film plays a crucial role in the effects of frontal asymmetry, which warrants further critical investigation.

Background: Stress and stress hormones modulate memory formation in various ways that are relevant to our understanding of stress-related psychopathology, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Particular relevance is attributed to efficient memory formation sustained by the hippocampus and parahippocampus. This process is thought to reduce the occurrence of intrusions and flashbacks following trauma, but may be negatively affected by acute stress. Moreover, recent evidence suggests that the efficiency of visuo-spatial processing and learning based on the hippocampal area is related to PTSD symptoms. Objective: The current study investigated the effect of acute stress on spatial configuration learning using a spatial contextual cueing task (SCCT) known to heavily rely on structures in the parahippocampus. Method: Acute stress was induced by subjecting participants (N=34) to the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST). Following a counterbalanced within-subject approach, the effects of stress and the ensuing hormonal (i.e., cortisol) activity on subsequent SCCT performance were compared to SCCT performance following a no-stress control condition. Results: Acute stress did not impact SCCT learning overall, but opposing effects emerged for high versus low cortisol responders to the MAST. Learning scores following stress were reduced in low cortisol responders, while high cortisol-responding participants showed improved learning. Conclusions: The effects of stress on spatial configuration learning were moderated by the magnitude of endogenous cortisol secretion. These findings suggest a possible mechanism by which cortisol responses serve an adaptive function during stress and trauma, and this may prove to be a promising route for future research in this area. Keywords: Maastricht Acute Stress Test; contextual cueing paradigm; spatial memory; hippocampal area; posttraumatic stress disorder (Published: 2 May 2013) For the abstract or full text in other languages, please see Supplementary files in the column to the right (under Article Tools) Citation: European Journal of Psychotraumatology 2013, 4 : 19854 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.19854 This paper is part of the thematic cluster Psychotrauma research in the Netherlands - more papers from this cluster can be found here .

Stress can exert profound effects on memory encoding. Here, we investigated whether (sub)cortical information processing during encoding and memory retrieval at a 24 h delayed test are affected by the temporal proximity between stress and memory encoding. Sixty-four participants engaged in the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST) or a no-stress control condition either immediately before (i.e., proximate condition) or 30 min before (i.e., distant condition) a picture encoding task. In general, stress decreased the number of freely recalled and recognized pictures and increased the number of false alarms. However, timing of stress exposure did not differentially affect picture recall, recognition or selective attention processes (i.e., LPP). Nevertheless, stress-induced cortisol responses and correctly recognized neutral pictures were positively associated within the proximate stress condition but negatively associated within the distant stress condition. These findings suggest that the time at which a stressor is applied might differentially impact the association between stress-induced cortisol elevations and memory formation and indicate the need for a finer delineation of the time window during which glucocorticoids affect memory formation processes.

A limited number of studies have shown that adults and adolescents with psychopathic traits suffer from emotional memory impairment. The present study examined whether this finding could be replicated in a sample of children between 8 and 12 years of age with callous-unemotional (CU) traits. Children with high CU traits (n=24) were compared with children with low CU traits (n=18) with regard to performance on a peripheral memory recognition test that examined memory for central and peripheral components of neutral and negative pictures. Results showed that overall recognition rates did not differ between the high- and low-CU groups. For negative pictures, both groups demonstrated better recognition of the central component at the expense of the peripheral component, while for neutral pictures, the peripheral component was better recognized than the central component. This study is the first to demonstrate that children with high CU traits do not suffer from an impaired emotional memory.

Traditionally, recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) have been classified as those emerging spontaneously versus those surfacing during the course of suggestive therapy. There are indications that reinterpretation of memories might be a third route to recovered memories. Thus, recovered memories do not form a homogeneous category. Nevertheless, the conceptual distinctions between the various types of recovered memories remain difficult for researchers and clinicians. With this in mind, the current study explored whether recovered memories can be reliably classified. We found that classification is rather problematic in a subset of cases. To reduce potential bias, we urge for the development and subsequent use of a more reliable classification system and multiple expert raters in research on recovered memories.

Stress and negative moods, which are thought to be partly mediated by reduced brain serotonin function, often increase emotional eating in dieting women (restrainers). Because the short (S) allele polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) is associated with serotonin dysfunction, S allele compared to long (L) allele 5-HTTLPR genotypes may be more susceptible to stress-induced emotional eating. Consequently, serotonin challenge via tryptophan (TRP)-rich protein hydrolysate (TPH) may alleviate stress-induced emotional eating particularly in S/S allele carriers. We tested whether acute stress affects emotional eating in women with high or low dietary restraints depending on their 5-HTTLPR genotype and TPH intake. Nineteen female subjects who were homozygous for the short-allele 5-HTTLPR genotype (S'/S'=S/L(G), L(G)/L(G): restrainers vs. nonrestrainers) and 23 female subjects who were homozygous for the long-allele 5-HTTLPR genotype (L'/L'=L(A)/L(A): restrainers vs. nonrestrainers) were tested in a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study of stress-induced emotional eating following intake of TPH or a placebo. TPH intake significantly increased the plasma TRP/large neutral amino acid ratio (P

In two studies, we explored whether susceptibility to false memories and the underestimation of prior memories (i.e., forgot-it-all-along effect) tap overlapping memory phenomena. Study 1 investigated this issue by administering the Deese/Roediger-McDermott task (DRM) and the forgot-it-all-along (FIA) task to an undergraduate sample (N=110). It was furthermore explored how performances on these tasks correlate with clinically relevant traits such as fantasy proneness, dissociative experiences, and cognitive efficiency. Results show that FIA and DRM performances are relatively independent from each other, suggesting that these measures empirically apparently refer to separate dimensions. However, they do not seem to define different profiles in terms of dissociation, fantasy proneness, and cognitive efficiency. Study 2 replicated the finding of relative independence between false memory propensity (as measured with the DRM task) and the underestimation of prior memories (as measured with an autobiographical memory dating task) in people with a history of childhood sexual abuse (N=35).

It is widely recognized that acute stress and associated glucocorticoid stress responses yield memory-enhancing effects when the memory consolidation phase is targeted, while impairing effects are generally found with regard to memory retrieval performance. While some evidence exists that the memory-enhancing effects of consolidation stress are modulated by time of day, no study to date has investigated whether stress-induced retrieval deficits are also prone to such time of day effects. To address this issue, participants (N = 76) were exposed to a stressor or control condition before a retrieval test that probed for neutral and negative words learned 24 h before. Results show that stress exposure resulted in impaired retrieval of both neutral and negative words, but that time of day did not moderate this effect. This memory-impairing effect was larger for negative than for neutral information, and was significantly associated with stress-induced cortisol responses. The current findings demonstrate the robustness of stress-induced retrieval deficits throughout the day, in particular for emotional memory material, and further underscore the importance of cortisol reactivity in impairing memory retrieval. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)

We explored whether children's suggestion-induced omission errors are caused by memory erasure Seventy-five children were instructed to remove three pieces of clothing from a puppet Next, they were confronted with evidence falsely suggesting that one of the items had not been removed During two Subsequent interviews separated by one week, children had to report which pieces of clothing they had removed Children who during both interviews failed to report that they had removed the pertinent item (i e, omission error. n = 24) completed a choice reaction time task In this task, they were presented with different clothing items For each item, children had to indicate whether or not they had removed it. Significantly more errors were made for those removed items that children filled to report than for those they had not removed This indicates that children's suggestion-based omission errors are not due to erasure of memories

The current study investigated the effects of cold pressor stress (CPS) on 2 working memory (WM) tasks differing in the demand they put on maintenance and executive processing. For this purpose 72 healthy young men were exposed either to a stress group or a nonstressful control group. Subsequently, WM performance on the O-Span task (Turner & Engle, 1989) and the digit span task was assessed. Salivary cortisol was measured before and 2 times after the treatment as a marker of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. Results revealed a significant performance impairment of the O-Span and the digit span task backward in stressed subjects that correlated negatively with CPS-induced cortisol increases. Digit span forward was neither affected by CPS nor related to the ensuing cortisol increases. These results indicate that acute stress impairs WM performance for task requiring executive functions that operate on the stored material but not for WM tasks that only require maintenance.

What differentiates those who are able to adapt well to adverse life events (i.e., persons who are resilient) from those who are not (e.g., persons who develop post-traumatic stress symptoms)? Previous work suggests that enhanced autobiographical integration of trauma memories is associated with more severe post-traumatic stress symptoms. Extending this line of work, the present study looked at whether the integration of trauma memories, repressive coping and cognitive reactivity are related to post-traumatic stress symptomatology following negative life events among otherwise healthy young adults (N = 213). Results show that while enhanced integration of trauma memories and high levels of dissociation are related to elevated levels of post-traumatic stress, people who generally engage in repressive coping report fewer post-traumatic stress symptoms.

A substantial majority of individuals who are exposed to a traumatic event do not develop any persistent trauma-related psychological symptoms, a phenomenon referred to as resilience. Relying on a sample of undergraduate students (n = 79), the present study investigated whether positive and negative affect and cognitive reactivity to emotional challenges serve as predictors of longitudinal changes in resilience as measured by the connor-davidson resilience scale. While at initial testing both positive affect and cognitive reactivity were related to resilience, only higher levels of cognitive reactivity predicted a reduction in resilience four months later. These results highlight the relevance of cognitive reactivity for the study of resilience. (netherlands journal of psychology, 65, 62-68.).

The present study investigated the precise nature of crashing memory reports: Are they truly memories or are they based on beliefs? We asked 88 individuals whether they had seen non-existent footage of the Pim Fortuyn assassination and conducted thorough post-experimental interviews. Two-thirds of our participants falsely reported having seen the footage, while less than 10% also reported details that they could not have seen. Moreover, plausibility ratings of having seen the images were higher than false belief ratings, which in turn were higher than false memory ratings. After having been fully debriefed, 81% of the participants who reported crashing memories attributed their false report to their lack of a full understanding of the critical question. Another 10% of this subsample stated that they truly remembered the images (i.e. false memories). Thus, only a small subset of crashing memory reports seems to be induced by false beliefs and/or false memories.

Humans as social beings often have to perform complex social cognitive tasks while under stress (e.g., during a social conflict). Previous research has established that the brain regions responsible for social cognitive tasks are target regions for stress hormones. However, little experimental research has been done testing the acute effects of stress on social cognition. Here, we investigated whether stress exposure and the ensuing glucocorticoid (i.e., cortisol) elevations affect social cognition. Thirty-two men and 32 women were exposed to either a psychosocial stress or a non-stressful control test before assessing their social cognition using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) and the Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC). Results showed differential effects of stress-induced cortisol responses among men and women for the MASC, but not the RMET. Among men. high cortisol responders displayed elevated MASC scores compared with low cortisol responders. Moreover, for stressed men a positive association between the magnitude of the cortisol responses to the stressor and MASC scores emerged. Among women, enhanced MASC scores were found for low cortisol responders relative to high cortisol responders and non-stressed controls. A strong negative association between cortisol reactivity and MASC scores was found among women. These results imply sex specific effects of glucocorticoids on social cognition and partially support the idea of sex differences in biobehavioral stress responses, with men engaging in fight-or-flight responses while women may react to stress with tending and befriending behavior.

Adrenal stress hormones released in response to acute stress may yield memory-enhancing effects when released post-learning and impairing effects at memory retrieval, especially for emotional memory material. However, so far these differential effects of stress hormones on the various memory phases for neutral and emotional memory material have not been demonstrated within one experiment. This study investigated whether, in line with their effects on true memory, stress and stress-induced adrenal stress hormones affect the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of emotional and neutral false memories. Participants (N = 90) were exposed to a stressor before encoding, during consolidation, before retrieval, or were not stressed and then were subjected to neutral and emotional versions of the Deese-Roediger-McDermott word list learning paradigm. Twenty-four hours later, recall of presented words (true recall) and non-presented critical lure words (false recall) was assessed. Results show that stress exposure resulted in superior true memory performance in the consolidation stress group and reduced true memory performance in the retrieval stress group compared to the other groups, predominantly for emotional words. These memory-enhancing and memory-impairing effects were strongly related to stress-induced cortisol and sympathetic activity measured via salivary alpha-amylase levels. Neutral and emotional false recall, on the other hand, was neither affected by stress exposure, nor related to cortisol and sympathetic activity following stress. These results demonstrate the importance of stress-induced hormone-related activity in enhancing memory consolidation and in impairing memory retrieval, in particular for emotional memory material.

Patienten die symptomen simuleren bestaan. Maar hoe spoor je ze op? De consensus is dat de clinicus er verstandig aan doet om meerdere instrumenten in te zetten, waaronder tests en taken, maar ook een interview. In zo'n interview moet worden nagegaan of de patient ertoe neigt om voor de dag te komen met onwaarschijnlijke symptomen en kenmerken. Maar wat vraag je dan aan de patient? In ons onderzoek probeerden we bruikbare symptomen en kenmerken te genereren.

To explore whether schizotypal traits may undermine source monitoring for actions, 67 undergraduate participants (21 men) completed the Schizotypal Personality Scale and were then given a source-monitoring task in which some specific acts had to be performed, whereas others only had to be imagined. Next, participants had to complete an old-new recognition task and ascribe the source, i.e., whether they had performed or only imagined the items (i.e., source monitoring). Participants also completed a working memory capacity task (i.e., Operation Span task). We found that the higher the Schizotypal Personality Scale scores, the poorer recognition and source attribution scores. Relative to participants with low levels of schizotypal traits (i.e., controls), those with higher levels of schizotypal traits more often falsely claimed to have performed actions when in fact they had only imagined them. Although participants high and low in schizotypical traits did not differ in their working memory capacity, poor working memory capacity was related to source misattribution (i.e., increase false alanns). The present findings indicate that schizotypal traits undermine source monitoring for action in a healthy population.

The relationship between self-reported traumatic childhood experiences, cortisol levels, aggression, and psychopathy was investigated in prison inmates (n = 47) and healthy controls (n = 27). Besides questionnaires, a brief salivary diurnal profile was measured. Results show that criminals (both psychopaths and non-psychopaths) demonstrate more traumatic childhood experiences than the control group. Within the group of criminals, psychopaths showed the lowest diurnal cortisol concentrations, whereas the non-psychopaths demonstrated highest daily average cortisol (DAC) scores. High levels of aggression were related to traumatic childhood experiences in non-psychopaths and control participants, but not in psychopaths. Although psychopathic offenders demonstrated low levels of cortisol, high levels of childhood traumatic experiences and high levels of aggression, cortisol was not a mediating factor between childhood traumatic experiences and aggression. Implications of the finding that psychopathic offenders displayed lower and non-psychopaths showed higher daily cortisol levels are discussed.

Schizophrenic patients have difficulties in recognising previously presented verbal information and identifying its sources. The antecedents of these recognition and source misattributions are, however, largely unknown. The current study examined to what extent schizophrenic patients' lack of memory efficiency, their memory errors, and their source misattributions are related to neurocognitive deficits (i.e., executive dysfunctions).23 schizophrenic patients and 20 healthy controls were administered an adapted version of the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) task from which parameters of memory efficiency, memory errors, source misattributions, and two-high threshold measures were derived. Furthermore, two neurocognitive tasks tapping executive functions were administered: the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and the Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS). Using multiple linear regression analyses, we examined whether these neurocognitive measures predicted various memory parameters.Patients with schizophrenia showed poorer memory efficiency and were more prone to make internal-external source misattributions with high confidence. However, they did not more often falsely recognise critical lure words than controls. Executive dysfunctions predicted memory efficiency, but not source misattribution performance.Our findings provide further evidence that schizophrenic patients' memory impairments are intimately related to fundamental neurocognitive deficits.

The present study investigated the effect of acute stress on working memory and memory for neutral, emotionally negative, and emotionally positive words in healthy undergraduates. Participants (N=60) were exposed to either the Trier Social Stress Test (stress group) or a non-stressful task (control group). Analyses of salivary cortisol samples taken throughout the study showed elevated glucocorticoid levels after the experimental manipulation in the stress group, but not in the control group. Recall performance was impaired in the stress group, but only so for neutral words. No differences between the stress and control group were found on working memory measures. For the stress group, digit span forward and digit span total scores were associated with correct recall of neutral words. All in all, this study lends further support to the notion that the memory effects of exposure to acute stress depend on the valence of the memory material.

The current studies investigated whether acute stress potentiates false recollections (so-called “false memories”) in a Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm, and whether sex differences modulate these effects. Participants were assigned to either a stress (trier social stress test) or a control group. Subsequently, they were subjected to DRM word lists and probed for recall and recognition. Results showed no differences between the stress and control group on measures of false recollections (Study 1; N = 60). Even though correct recall was impaired by acute stress, there were no differences between high or low cortisol responders and controls on false recall or recognitions rates (Study 2; N = 92). These results suggest that cortisol responses do not directly potentiate false recollections. Neither in Study 1 nor in Study 2 did we find any evidence that the effects of cortisol on false recollections are different in men and women, although there was an indication that independent of stress men produced more commission errors.

Numerous studies claim to have shown that false memories can be easily created in the laboratory. However, a critical analysis of the methods employed in these studies indicates that many of them do not address memory in the strict sense of the word. Instead, some of these studies assess the confidence that participants have in a fictitious (childhood) event, while others pertain to false beliefs about childhood events. While it is difficult to draw precise demarcation lines, we argue that inflated confidence, false beliefs, and false memories are different phenomena. Keeping the origins of these studies in mind (i.e., people who file lawsuits on the basis of their recovered memories), we propose that a fruitful, but stringent definition of false memories would incorporate their consequences. Thus, we argue that this research domain would profit from studies looking explicitly at whether experimental manipulations intended to implant false memories have overt behavioral consequences.

Judges and lawyers often consider inconsistent testimonies to be inaccurate. We addressed this assumption by asking undergraduate students on 2 occasions to write detailed accounts of violent movie fragments they had seen. These accounts were evaluated in terms of accuracy, completeness, and consistency. Experiment 1 showed that accounts tended to be accurate. Moreover, first accounts were marginally more complete than second accounts. The number of inconsistencies between the 2 accounts was not significantly related to their accuracy. Experiment 2 sought to replicate these findings using a more emotionally upsetting movie fragment. Results were highly similar to those of Experiment 1 in that accounts tended to be accurate but incomplete. Inconsistencies were not significantly related to the accuracy of participants' accounts. In line with previous research, we found that accounts of emotional events can be highly accurate but tend to be incomplete. More importantly, inconsistencies cannot be seen as valid predictors of testimonial inaccuracy.

The expression of the IL-2R α-, β-, and γ-chains, CD25, CD122, and CD132, respectively, was investigated on fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) and dermal fibroblasts (DF). Both protein and mRNA for CD122 and CD132 were observed but there was no evidence of CD25 expression. Quantification of the Ag binding sites for CD122 showed that FLS expressed 4 times more receptor molecules than DF. The functional capability of these receptors was confirmed by the production of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in direct response to stimulation by IL-2, which could be inhibited by neutralizing anti-CD122 mAb. Both rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and osteoarthritis (OA) FLS and DF spontaneously produced MCP-1 in culture over a similar range of concentrations. However, RA and OA FLS produced significantly greater levels of MCP-1 following stimulation by IL-2 and IL-1β; RA FLS produced significantly more MCP-1 than OA FLS. Addition of exogenous IL-2 caused a slight, but significant, decrease in MCP-1 production by DF. The addition of neutralizing anti-CD122 mAb to FLS cultures partially, but significantly, reduced the IL-2-induced MCP-1 secretion, but did not effect either the spontaneous or IL-1β-induced secretion of MCP-1. Increased tyrosine phosphorylation was observed in FLS lysates following 30-min incubation with IL-2. In conclusion, in the inflamed synovium, as activated T cells migrate through the sublining and lining layer, T cell-derived IL-2 may activate FLS to secrete MCP-1, thus recruiting macrophages into the rheumatoid synovium and perpetuating inflammation.