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The wide range of scalenus minimus muscle incidence reported in the literature along with the plethora of fibromuscular structures that may appear in the interscalene triangle, having various terminologies, were the reasons to conduct the present study questioning the reported high incidence of this supernumerary scalene muscle. Seventy-three Greek cadavers were dissected and examined for the presence of a scalenus minimus muscle. It was found unilaterally in three of 73 (4.11%) cadavers studied. The literature review, concerning its incidence, revealed a wide range between 7.8 and 71.7 per cent, which cannot be attributed only to racial variation. Thus, there is a matter whether other variations of the scalene muscles are considered as a true scalenus minimus muscle. Recognition of this muscle is important not only for anatomists, but also has clinical significance for the diagnosis of the thoracic outlet syndrome. Surgeons performing scalenectomy and anesthesiologists during interscalene brachial plexus block should keep in mind the anatomical variations of this region.

During lymphadenectomy in the left axilla of a 38-year-old woman with a 1.4 cm invasive ductal breast carcinoma an accessory muscle was found. Due to the presence of the anomalous muscle the lymphadenectomy was carried out with difficulty through a limited field. Based on its anatomical characteristics, the supernumerary muscle was recognized as the pectoralis quartus. To our knowledge this is the first report of a pectoralis quartus muscle as a surgical finding. The surgeon should be aware of the possible presence of this anomaly as well as its anatomical characteristics in order to avoid any complications.

The purpose of the present study was to conduct direct measurements in a large sample of dried femori in order to record certain morphometric parameters of the femoral condyles and determine whether there are gender and side differences. Three hundred sixty (Greek) Caucasian dried femori (180 left and 180 right), from 192 males and 168 females, were measured using a digital caliper. The mean age was 67.52 years. The mean bicondylar width of the femur was 8.86 cm ± 0.42 cm in men and 7.85 cm ± 0.30 cm in women (P < 0.01). The relative values for the medial condylar depth were 6.11 cm ± 0.34 cm and 5.59 cm ± 0.29 cm (P < 0.05); for the lateral condylar depth were 6.11 cm ± 0.33 cm and 5.54 cm ± 0.21 cm (P < 0.01); for the intercondylar width were 2.20 cm ± 0.18 cm and 1.87 cm ± 0.10 cm (P < 0.001); for the intercondylar depth were 2.78 cm ± 0.16 cm and 2.37 cm ± 0.12 cm (P < 0.001). No significant side-to-side difference was observed in any parameter. The femoral condyles differences in anatomy between genders might be useful to the design of total knee prostheses. The contralateral healthy side can be safely used for preoperative templating since there were no significant side differences.

In the current study a levator claviculae muscle, found in a 65-year old male cadaver, is presented. We describe the topography and morphology of this accessory muscle, which may be found in 1-3% of the population. Moreover, we discuss the embryologic origin of the muscle along with its clinical importance.

In the present study, we propose a classification of the different forms of the circumaortic renal collar based on the findings of 319 patients and on a literature review. The patients underwent a CT angiography scan of the abdomen for various diagnostic reasons. The different forms in which the circumaortic renal collar may appear were categorized. The renal collar was observed in eight of the 319 (2.5%) patients. The classification we propose is the following: Type I, one left renal vein splitting into two branches, a preaortic and a retroaortic, draining into the inferior vena cava; Type II, two different left renal veins, the one preaortic and the other retroaortic, draining into the inferior vena cava; and Type III, either anastomoses between the preaortic and retroaortic vein, being multiple or not, or multiple preaortic or retroaortic renal veins without anastomoses. Although the circumaortic renal collar is usually asymptomatic, the knowledge of this variation is useful, mainly before abdominal aortic aneurysm surgery and renal transplantation. Failure to recognize the collar's retroaortic component may lead to hemorrhage and death during retroperitoneal surgery. We believe that our classification contributes to recognize the circumaortic renal collar's morphology both preoperatively and intraoperatively.

When the superficial femoral vein is obstructed by thrombosis, the profunda femoris vein provides an important collateral pathway, transforming into the axial vein of the lower limb. When operating on a transformed axial vein, a surgeon should be aware of the formation, the relations and the course of the vein. A precise description of these anatomical features is not feasible on the basis of ultrasound, venographic or surgical study but only from anatomical studies. We present a case of axial transformation of the profunda femoris vein found in a cadaver, focusing on the anatomical features of the transformed axial vein.

In the current study, we present a bilateral sternalis muscle, which was found during routine dissection of a 64 years-old Caucasian male cadaver. At the right side, the muscle had an unusual morphology, namely it consisted of three almost parallel strap-like muscle slips. Moreover, we discuss the innervation, origin and incidence of this variation, which are under controversy, as well as its clinical relevance.

The palmaris longus muscle originates from the medial epicondyle of the humerus. After a short distance, almost in the middle of the forearm, the muscle belly is toggled into a broad tendon which is inserted into the flexor retinaculum and the palmar aponeurosis. After dissection of the left forearm of a 73-year-old female cadaver we found a reversed palmaris longus muscle. This means that the palmaris longus muscle was tendinous in its upper part and muscular in its lower part. Additionally, the muscle belly was triple, thus our finding was characterized as "three-headed reversed palmaris longus muscle". Rarely is the palmaris longus muscle double, whereas the three-headed reversed palmaris longus muscle is mentioned only once in the literature as a surgical finding, in a patient who suffered from edema and pain in the wrist [Yildiz, M., Sener, M., Aynaci, O., 2000. Three-headed reversed palmaris longus muscle: a case report and review of the literature. Surg. Radiol. Anat. 22, 217-219]. The overuse of the reversed palmaris longus muscle can lead to the muscle's local hypertrophy. According to the literature a reversed palmaris longus muscle may cause a compartment syndrome with pain and edema in the wrist's area, the carpal tunnel syndrome and Guyon's syndrome. The described variation is also useful to the hand surgeon, as the palmaris longus muscle is an anatomical landmark for operations at this area.

The superficial ulnar artery (SUA) is an ulnar artery of high origin that lies superficially in the forearm. Its reported frequency ranges from 0.17% to 2%. During anatomical dissection in our department we observed a unilateral case of SUA in a 75-year-old white male human cadaver. It originated from the right axillary artery at the level of the junction of the two median nerve roots and followed a looping course, crossing over the lateral root of the median nerve and running lateral to it in the upper and middle thirds of the arm, whereas in the inferior third of the arm the SUA crossed over the median nerve and ran medially to it. In the cubital fossa, it passed superficially over the medial side of the ulnar aponeurosis and coursed subcutaneously in the ulnar side of the forearm superficially to the forearm flexor muscles. In the hand the SUA anastomosed with the superficial palmar branch of the radial artery, creating the superficial palmar arch. Additionally, it participated in the development of the deep palmar arch. The axillary artery, after the origin of the SUA, continued as the brachial artery and divided into the radial and common interosseous arteries in the cubital fossa. The normal ulnar artery was absent. No muscular or other arterial variations were observed in this cadaver. The embryological interpretation of this variation is difficult and it may arise as a result of modifications to the normal pattern of capillary vessel maintenance and regression. The existence of a SUA is undoubtedly of interest to the clinician as well as to the anatomist. This report presents a case of unilateral SUA along with a review of the literature, embryological explanation and analysis of its clinical significance.

The subscapular artery arises from the third part of the axillary artery and gives off the circumflex scapular and the thoracodorsal arteries. Although anatomical variations of the axillary artery are very common, the existence of a unilateral accessory thoracodorsal artery has been described in the literature only once. There are no reports of bilateral accessory thoracodorsal artery, in the literature. In the present study, a bilateral accessory thoracodorsal artery, originating on either side of the third part of the axillary artery, is described in a 68-year-old female cadaver. All the other branches of the axillary artery had a typical origin, course, distribution and termination. This extremely rare anatomical variation apart from the anatomical importance also has clinical significance for surgeons in this area. Especially, during the dissection or mobilization of the latissimus dorsi that is partly used for coverage problems in many regions of the body and also in dynamic cardiomyoplasty, any iatrogenic injury of this accessory artery may result in ischemia and functional loss of the graft.

The aim of this study is the recording of the variations of the course of the upper trunk (UT) of the brachial plexus (BP) and their clinical significance for the thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) and the anesthetic blockade of the BP. Five different anatomical variations of the course of the UT of the BP, in relation to the anterior scalene muscle (ASM), were observed in 24 out of the 186 sides of the 93 cadavers we studied (12.9%). The C5 root was passing anteriorly to the ASM in six cases. The UT was located anteriorly to the ASM in four cases and was perforating the ASM's belly in 12 cases. In one cadaver, the ASM was double and the UT was passing between the two bellies of the double ASM. Finally, in another cadaver, the C5 root was found to be anterior to the anterior scalene muscle, while the C6 root was perforating the ASM's belly. These variations are predisposing factors for the TOS; they cause specific symptomatology and require a different surgical approach in comparison with other causes of the syndrome. Moreover, knowledge of these is important during the performance of the anesthetic blockade of the BP.