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The microstructural features of amorphous TiO2 thin films grown by the electron beam physical vapour deposition technique at oblique angles have been experimentally and theoretically studied. The microstructural features of the deposited films were characterized by considering both the column tilt angle and the increase in the column thickness with height. A Monte Carlo model of film growth has been developed that takes into account surface shadowing, short-range interaction between the deposition species and the film surface, as well as the angular broadening of the deposition flux when arriving at the substrate. The good match between simulations and experimental results indicates the importance of these factors in the growth and microstructural development of thin films deposited at oblique angles. © 2011 IOP Publishing Ltd.

8 pages.-- PACS: 68.55.ag; 81.15.-z; 81.40.Gh; 61.72.Cc; 79.20.Uv; 77.22.Ch; 78.40.Ha; 78.66.Li; 73.25.+i; 61.80.Ba; 73.61.Le, InTaO4 and In0.9Ni0.1TaO4 thin films have been prepared by electron evaporation of successive layers of the single oxide components and posterior annealing at T>800 °C. The annealed thin films presented the monoclinic crystallographic structure typical of these mixed oxides. The electrical and optical behaviors of the films, assessed by C-V measurements, surface conductivity as a function of temperature, and UV-vis absorption spectroscopy, indicate that these oxides are wide band gap semiconductors with a variable dielectric constant depending on the annealing conditions. By reflection electron energy loss spectroscopy some electronic states have been found in the gap at an energy that is compatible with the activation energy deduced from the conductivity versus 1/T plots for these oxides. The photoactivity of these materials has been assessed by looking to the evolution of the wetting contact angle as a function of the irradiation time. All the films became superhydrophilic when irradiated with UV light, while the In0.9Ni0.1TaO4 thin films also presented a small partial decrease in wetting angle when irradiated with visible photons.

This work describes the rhizomorphs and their relation to thallus development in the squamulose lichen Aspicilia crespiana Rico ined. The rhizomorphs capture algal cells, giving rise to new squamules terminally or laterally. The thallus thus consists of a network of lichenized squamules interlinked by mycobiontic rhizomorphs. A previously proposed comparison of lichen rhizomorphs to the prothallus (hypothallus) of crustose lichens is applied and expanded upon. Other less organized prothallic structures sometimes produced by A. crespiana are also described. The importance of lichenizing rhizomorphs as an essential feature of thallus growth in this species is emphasized and a competitive role in substrate occupation and thallus expansion is suggested.

Dielectric Barrier Discharges (DBD) operated at atmospheric pressure and working at reduced temperatures (T115 degrees C) and a copper-manganese oxide catalyst are combined for the direct decomposition and the steam reforming of methanol (SRM) for hydrogen production and for the preferential oxidation of CO (CO-PROX).

This work investigates the possibility of using plasmas to treat high boiling point and viscous liquids (HBPVL) and cokes resulting as secondary streams from the refining of oil. For their revalorisation, the use of microwave (MW) induced plasmas of water is proposed, as an alternative to more conventional processes (i.e., catalysis, pyrolysis, combustion, etc.). As a main result, this type of energetic cold plasma facilitates the conversion at room temperature of the heavy aromatic oils and cokes into linear hydrocarbons and synthesis gas, commonly defined as syngas (CO + H2 gas mixture). The exposure of the coke to this plasma also facilitates the removal of the sulfur present in the samples and leads to the formation on their surface of a sort of carbon fibers and rods network and new porous structures. Besides, optical emission measurements have provided direct evidence of the intermediates resulting from the fragmentation of the heavy oils and cokes during their exposure to the water plasma. Furthermore, the analysis of the mass spectra patterns suggests a major easiness to break the aromatic bonds mainly contained in the heavy oils. Therefore, an innovative method for the conversion of low value residues from oil-refining processes is addressed.

12 pages, 4 figures, 3 tables.-- Available online Oct 30, 2008., In this study, the deterioration effects of lichens and other lithobionts in a temperate mesothermal climate were explored. We examined samples of dolostone and limestone rocks with visible signs of biodeterioration taken from the exterior wall surfaces of four Romanesque churches in Segovia (Spain): San Lorenzo, San Martín, San Millán and La Vera Cruz. Biofilms developing on the lithic substrate were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy. The most common lichen species found in the samples were recorded. Fungal cultures were then obtained from these carbonate rocks and characterized by sequencing Internal Transcribed Spacers (ITS). Through scanning electron microscopy in back-scattered electron mode, fungi (lichenized and non-lichenized) were observed as the most frequent microorganisms occurring at sites showing signs of biodeterioration. The colonization process was especially conditioned by the porosity characteristics of the stone used in these buildings. While in dolostones, microorganisms mainly occupied spaces comprising the rock's intercrystalline porosity, in bioclastic dolomitized limestones, fungal colonization seemed to be more associated with moldic porosity. Microbial biofilms make close contact with the substrate, and thus probably cause significant deterioration of the underlying materials. We describe the different processes of stone alteration induced by fungal colonization and discuss the implications of these processes for the design of treatments to prevent biodeterioration., This study was supported by grant MATERNAS (S0505-MAT/000094) from the CAM and CGL2006-04658 from the Spanish Ministry of Education.

Ta2O5 thin films with different nanostructure and surface roughness have been prepared by electron evaporation at different angles between the evaporation source and the substrates. Large variation of refraction indexes (n) from 1.40 to 1.80 were obtained by changing the geometry of evaporation and/or by annealing the evaporated films at increasing temperatures up to 1000 °C to make them crystalline. Very flat and compact thin films (n ) 2.02) were also obtained by assisting the growth by bombardment with O2 + ions of 800 eV kinetic energy. A similar correlation has been found between the wetting contact angle of water and the roughness of the films for the evaporated and evaporated + annealed samples, irrespective of their procedure of preparation and other microstructural characteristics. When the films were illuminated with UV light of h > Eg ) 4.2 eV (Eg, band gap energy of Ta2O5), their surface became superhydrophilic (contact angle < 10°) in a way quite similar to those reported for illuminated TiO2 thin films. The rate of transformation into the superhydrophilic state was smaller for the crystalline than for the amorphous films, suggesting that in Ta2O5 the size of crystal domains at the surface is an important parameter for the control of this kinetics. Changes in the water contact angle on films illuminated with visible light were also found when they were subjected to implantation with N2 + ions of 800 eV kinetic energy. The origin of this photoactivity is discussed in terms of the electronic band gap states associated with the nitrogen-implanted atoms. The possibility of preparing antireflective and self-cleaning coatings of Ta2O5 is discussed.

Illumination of TiO 2 thin films with UV light is known to induce the transformation of the surface of this material from partially hydrophobic into fully hydrophilic. The present work shows that this transformation is accompanied by other effects that may be used to control the synthesis of composite materials. For this purpose, TiO 2 and Ta 2O 5 transparent thin films with a columnar structure and open pores were prepared by electron evaporation at glancing angles. Transparent TiO 2 thin films with micropores (i.e., pores smaller than 2 nm) prepared by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) were also used. All these films became hydrophilic upon UV illumination. Rhodamine 6G and Rhodamine 800 dyes were irreversibly adsorbed within the columns of the TiO 2 and Ta 2O 5 thin films by immersion into a water solution of these molecules. Isolated and aggregated molecules of these two dyes were detected by visible absorption spectroscopy. The infiltration adsorption efficiency was directly correlated with the acidity of the medium, increasing at basic pHs as expected from simple considerations based on the concepts of the point of zero charge (PZC) in colloidal oxides. The infiltration experiments were repeated with columnar TiO 2 and Ta 2O 5 thin films that were subjected to preillumination with UV light. It was found that this treatment produced a modification in the type (isolated or aggregated) and amount of dye molecules incorporated into the pores. Moreover, the selective adsorption of a given dye in preilluminated areas of the films permitted the lithographic coloring of the films. Preillumination also controls the UV induced deposition of silver on the surface of the microporous TiO 2 thin films. It was found that the size distribution of the formed silver nanoparticles was dependent on the preillumination treatment and that a well-resolved surface plasmon resonance at around 500 nm was only monitored in the preilluminated films. A model is proposed to account for the effects induced by UV preillumination on the TiO 2 and Ta 2O 5 oxide surfaces. The possibilities of this type of light treatment for the tailored synthesis of nanocomposite thin films (i.e., dye-oxide, metal nanoparticles-oxide) are highlighted.

Doping TiO2 with nitrogen is recognized as a procedure to get sensitization of this material with visible light. In the present work incorporation of nitrogen within the structure of TiO2 thin films has been accomplished by N2 + ion implantation in TiO2 anatase thin films (50 keV ion energy for doses of 3x1016, 6x1016 and 1.2x1017 ions cm-2) and during preparation by metalorganic CVD (MOCVD) using nitrogen as carrier gas. The analysis of the samples by X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) and for the MOCVD samples also by Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS) has shown that nitrogen, in the form of nitride-like species, (N/Ti ratios of 0.03 and 0.12 for the MOCVD and the implanted samples, respectively) has become effectively incorporated within the structure of TiO2. The water contact angle on the implanted thin films varied from about 80 º to around 30 º when illuminated with visible light, depending on the ion dose. Similarly, the MOCVD samples showed a sharp decrease in wetting contact angle under visible light from about 80º to 55º. In the two cases, the thin films reach total hydrophilicity by posterior UV irradiation. To account for these results, the possible existence of specific excitation mechanisms for visible or UV photons, the former involving the incorporated nitrogen atoms, is discussed.

Species recognition in lichen-forming fungi has been a challenge because of unsettled species concepts, few taxonomically relevant traits, and limitations of traditionally used morphological and chemical characters for identifying closely related species. Here we analyze species diversity in the cosmopolitan genus Protoparmelia s.l. The ~25 described species in this group occur across diverse habitats from the boreal -arctic/alpine to the tropics, but their relationship to each other remains unexplored. In this study, we inferred the phylogeny of 18 species currently assigned to this genus based on 160 specimens and six markers: mtSSU, nuLSU, ITS, RPB1, MCM7, and TSR1. We assessed the circumscription of species-level lineages in Protoparmelia s. str. using two coalescent-based species delimitation methods – BP&P and spedeSTEM. Our results suggest the presence of a tropical and an extra-tropical lineage, and eleven previously unrecognized distinct species-level lineages in Protoparmelia s. str. Several cryptic lineages were discovered as compared to phenotype-based species delimitation. Many of the putative species are supported by geographic evidence.

A new non-destructive method to determine hydrogen content in diamond-like carbon and polymeric thin film materials is developed. The method relies on quantification of the intensity of elastic peak stemming from the backscattering of electrons with the hydrogen atoms present in the samples as measured by reflection electron energy loss spectroscopy. Low current primary electron beams of ∼ 1500 eV are used to minimize hydrogen desorption by electron bombardment and to provide enough energy separation between the elastic signals coming from hydrogen and other atoms (mainly C and O atoms) from the thin film materials. Quantitative analysis of the hydrogen content at the surface of diamond-like carbon thin films is achieved by using phenomenological sensitivity factors of hydrogen against the other atoms with reference to polymeric samples. The validity of the method is checked with elastic recoil detection measurements. A comparison is also made with data provided by infrared spectroscopy analysis of the same samples. We estimate that the error bar in the determination of hydrogen content in the samples is around 20% of the total hydrogen content.

The number of undescribed species of lichenized fungi has been estimated at roughly 10,000. Describing and cataloging these would take the existing number of taxonomists several decades; however, the support for taxonomy is in decline worldwide. In this paper we emphasize the dire need for taxonomic expertise in lichenology. We bring together 103 colleagues from institutions worldwide to describe a total of 100 new species of lichenized fungi, representing a wide taxonomic and geographic range. The newly described species are: Acarospora flavisparsa, A. janae, Aderkomyces thailandicus, Amandinea maritima, Ampliotrema cocosense, Anomomorpha lecanorina, A. tuberculata, Aspicilia mansourii, Bacidina sorediata, Badimia multiseptata, B. vezdana, Biatora epirotica, Buellia sulphurica, Bunodophoron pinnatum, Byssoloma spinulosum, Calopadia cinereopruinosa, C. editae, Caloplaca brownlieae, C. decipioides, C. digitaurea, C. magnussoniana, C. mereschkowskiana, C. yorkensis, Calvitimela uniseptata, Chapsa microspora, C. psoromica, C. rubropulveracea, C. thallotrema, Chiodecton pustuliferum, Cladonia mongkolsukii, Clypeopyrenis porinoides, Coccocarpia delicatula, Coenogonium flammeum, Cresponea ancistrosporelloides, Crocynia microphyllina, Dictyonema hernandezii, D. hirsutum, Diorygma microsporum, D. sticticum, Echinoplaca pernambucensis, E. schizidiifera, Eremithallus marusae, Everniastrum constictovexans, Fellhanera borbonica, Fibrillithecis sprucei, Fissurina astroisidiata, F. nigrolabiata, F. subcomparimuralis, Graphis caribica, G. cerradensis, G. itatiaiensis, G. marusa, Gyalideopsis chicaque, Gyrotrema papillatum, Harpidium gavilaniae, Hypogymnia amplexa, Hypotrachyna guatemalensis, H. indica, H. lueckingii, H. paracitrella, H. paraphyscioides, H. parasinuosa, Icmadophila eucalypti, Krogia microphylla, Lecanora mugambii, L. printzenii, L. xanthoplumosella, Lecidea lygommella, Lecidella greenii, Lempholemma corticola, Lepraria sekikaica, Lobariella sipmanii, Megalospora austropacifica, M. galapagoensis, Menegazzia endocrocea, Myriotrema endoflavescens, Ocellularia albobullata, O. vizcayensis, Ochrolechia insularis, Opegrapha viridipruinosa, Pannaria phyllidiata, Parmelia asiatica, Pertusaria conspersa, Phlyctis psoromica, Placopsis imshaugii, Platismatia wheeleri, Porina huainamdungensis, Ramalina hyrcana, R. stoffersii, Relicina colombiana, Rhizocarpon diploschistidina, Sticta venosa, Sagenidiopsis isidiata, Tapellaria albomarginata, Thelotrema fijiense, Tricharia nigriuncinata, Usnea galapagona, U. pallidocarpa, Verrucaria rhizicola, and Xanthomendoza rosmarieae. In addition, three new combinations are proposed: Fibrillithecis dehiscens, Lobariella botryoides, and Lobariella pallida.

A series of nanoindentation tests has been carried out with TiO2 films produced by physical vapour deposition (PVD) under different conditions. Films with different microstructures and crystallographic structures have been prepared by changing experimental parameters such as the temperature of the substrate, the deposition angle (by the so-called glancing angle physical vapour deposition, GAPVD) or by exposing the growing film to a beam of accelerated ions. The obtained results of hardness and Young's modulus depict interesting correlations with the microstructure and structure of the films providing a general picture for the relationships between these characteristics and their mechanical properties. Different models have been used to extract Young's modulus and hardness parameters from the experimental nanoindentation curves. The obtained results are critically discussed to ascertain the ranges of validity of each procedure according to the type of sample investigated.

El sistema taxonómico trazado por E. Acharius fue introducido en España por M.Lagasca y S.R. Clemente. La recepción del "Methodus..." (1803) se efectuó con anterioridad Noviembre de 1806, a tenor de la correspondencia mantenida entre M. Lagasca y P. Lallave.La "Sinopsis..." (1814) fue utilizada con anterioridad a Junio de 1817, este texto fue distribuido por el algólogo sueco C.A. Agardh entre sus corresponsales A. Cabrera y F. Haenseler.E. Acharius recibió líquenes españoles, herborizados por M. Lagasca, L. Dufour y P.K.A. Schousboe, y ejemplares americanos, de A.J. Cavanilles y J. Dombey, con anterioridad a 1807. Los materiales del "Ensayo..." (1807) de S.R. Clemente fueron recibidos por E.Acharius entre 1809 y 1814.Se aportan los datos disponibles sobre la localización de los materiales citados por estos autores en sus trabajos liquenológicos. The system of lichen taxonomy outlined by E. Acharius was introduced in Spain by M. Lagasca and S.R. Clemente. As we now, from contemporary correspondence between M. Lagasca and P. Lallave, the "Methodus..." was received before November 1806. The Acharius "Synopsis..." (1814) was utilized before June 1817; the text was distribuited by the swedish algologist C.A. Agardh among his correspondents A. Cabrera and F. Haenseler.Before 1807, spanish lichens were sent to E. Acharius by M. Lagasca, L. Dufour and P.K.A. Schousboe, and also, american material of A.J. Cavanilles and J. Dombey. E. Acharius received material from S.R. Clemente's work ("Ensayo..."; 1807) between 1809 and 1814.Information on location of herbarium material, cited by these mentioned autors is revised.

Ar + NO microwave discharges are used for sterilization and the results are compared with additional experiments with Ar, O2 and N2–O2 plasma mixtures. The NO* species produced in the Ar–NO mixtures remain up to long distances from the source, thus improving the sterilization efficiency of the process. E. coli individuals exposed to the Ar + NO plasma undergo morphological damage and cell lysis. Combined effects of etching (by O* and Ar* species) and UV radiation (from deactivation of NO* species) are responsible for the higher activity found for this plasma mixture.

A nondestructive method to determine the hydrogen content at the surface of diamondlike carbon and polymeric thin films is proposed. The method relies on the analysis of the elastic peak produced by backscattering of electrons from the hydrogen atoms present at the sample surface. Quantitative analysis of the H content at the surface is achieved through use of a phenomenological sensitivity factor for elastic electron backscattering by H atoms with respect to other atoms present at the surface of reference polymeric samples. The validity of the method is checked with elastic recoil detection measurements and infrared spectroscopy analysis of the same samples. The accuracy of the method in the determination of H content at the sample surface is estimated to be ±10%.

The electron temperature in a low-pressure microwave electron cyclotron resonance slot antenna produced plasma is obtained. The upper excited atomic level populations have been measured through atomic emission spectroscopy. It has been shown that the Corona balance provides a good description of such levels and, based on this fact, a simple argon collisional-radiative model has been used in the temperature determination.

Four chemotypes of Dimelaena oreina are reported from the analysis of 140 specimens from the Iberian Peninsula. Chemotypes II (usnic and gyrophoric acids) and V (usnic and stictic acids) were previously known from this area, but chemotype I (usnic and fumarprotocetraric acids) is new to the region, and chemotype VII (usnic, stictic, and gyrophoric acids) is new for the species. Chemical and phytogeographical evidence suggests that chemotypes V and VII are closely related. In addition to geographic distributions, phytogeographic affinities and minor morphological trends, some lichens and lichenicolous fungi growing on Dimelaena oreina chemotypes are reported. Among all the species of Dimelaena hitherto known (e.g., Mayrhofer et al. 1996; Sheard 1974; Sheard & Mayrhofer 1984), Dimelaena oreina (Ach.) Norman is well characterized by its yellowgreen thallus containing usnic acid in the cortex, lecanorine apothecia, and an hyaline hypothecium. It is widespread in Temperate and Boreal regions of the northern hemisphere and is also known in the southern hemisphere (Mayrhofer et al. 1996). In Europe, its distribution is from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean. Dimelaena oreina is one of the best studied lichens from a chemical point of view. It is chemically variable, with six chemotypes recognized worldwide (Culberson et al. 1984; Leuckert & Poelt 1978; Leuckert et al. 1975, 1981, 1987; Mayrhofer et al. 1996; Sheard 1974, 1977; Sheard & Ahti 1975). According to the terminology of Sheard (1974, 1977) and Culberson et al. (1984), each chemotype is designated with a number, and is characterized by the content of the main substances (see Table 1). Except for the chemotype with sphaerophorin, described from California (Culberson et al. 1984) all chemotypes occur in Europe. They are distributed following a north to south gradient, with northern Europe having fewer and less complex chemotypes than southern territories (Leuckert & Poelt 1978). Chemotype III is predominant in northern Scandinavia, chemotype I is the most frequent in some mountainous regions of central Europe (with chemotype IV often associated), and chemotype V becomes the predominant chemotype in other parts of central Europe and in the Mediterranean region. A good correlation between chemistry and elevation has been also demonstrated in a study from South Tyrol (Leuckert et al. 1981). Chemotype V dominated at lower elevations, whereas at higher elevations chemotype I was the most frequent. The overall distribution of the chemotypes is summarized in Table 1. The main aim of this paper is to study the chemical variability of D. oreina in the Iberian Peninsula (Andorra, Portugal and Spain), a particularly interesting territory considering its great climatic and biological diversity, as well as the above mentioned chemical richness and complexity in southern Europe. In the Iberian Peninsula, D. oreina is a widespread lichen, extending from regions close to the coast to the highest mountains, mostly associated with hard siliceous rocks. Sporadic analysis of Spanish and Portuguese specimens by Leuckert et al. (1975), Sheard (1977), and Culberson et al. (1984) reported two chemotypes (II and V) for this territory. A rare occurrence of chemotype III (Sheard 1977) in Spain is here excluded, and needs confirmation because of the low elevation and typical Mediterranean character of the locality. Also, a few samples from the Canary Islands and Morocco have been analyzed; this complementary information is included in "representative specimens studied." MATERIALS AND METHODS The study is based on material kept at BCC, LEB, LISU, MA, MAF, VAB, and Etayo priv. herb. The main morphological and anatomical characters were studied by means of standard light microscopic techniques. A total of 142 samples, 140 from the Iberian Peninsula, one from the Canary Islands and one from Morocco, were analyzed by Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) and 12 selected specimens by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 0007-2745199139-44$O.7510 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.129 on Thu, 28 Jul 2016 04:05:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 40 THE BRYOLOGIST [VOL. 102 TABLE 1. Lichen substances content and distribution of the chemotypes of Dimelaena oreina, excluding rare occurrences FU = fumarprotocetraric acid, GY = gyrophoric acid, ST = stictic acid and SPH = sphaerophorin. Usnic acid present in all the chemotypes. Greenland Eastern Western Southern ChemoRussia FennoscanCentral Southern and North North Hemitype Substances and Asia dia Europe Europe N. Canada America America sphere

This paper reports a systematic analysis of the mechanical properties of nanocolumnar TiO2 thin films prepared by evaporation at a glancing geometry. A systematic study of the mechanical properties is carried out by comparing the hardness and the Young's modulus determined by nanoindentation for thin films prepared at different deposition angles and characterized by a tilted nanocolumnar structure and others where the nanocolumns are perpendicular to the substrate or are arranged as zig-zag stacked layers. A correlation between mechanical properties and glazing angle geometry is proposed. Differences in the results are discussed in view of the cross section images obtained by focused ion beam and of the deformed areas. Zig-zagged layers present lower values of hardness and Young's modulus due to the collapse of the angles of the columns, but at the same time this configuration impedes the appearance of fracture or delamination, as observed for tilted columns. © 2013 Elsevier B.V.

WOS: 000285566000008, Parmelioid lichens are a diverse and ubiquitous group of foliose lichens. Generic delimitation in parmelioid lichens has been in a state of flux since the late 1960s with the segregation of the large, heterogeneous genus Parmelia into numerous smaller genera. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that some of these new genera were monophyletic, some were not, and others, previously believed to be unrelated, fell within single monophyletic groups, indicating the need for a revision of the generic delimitations. This study aims to give an overview of current knowledge of the major clades of all parmelioid lichens. For this, we assembled a dataset of 762 specimens, including 31 of 33 currently accepted parmelioid genera (and 63 of 84 accepted genera of Parmeliaceae). We performed maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses of combined datasets including two, three and four loci. Based on these phylogenies and the correlation of morphological and chemical characters that characterize monophyletic groups, we accept 27 genera within nine main clades. We re-circumscribe several genera and reduce Parmelaria to synonymy with Parmotrema. Emodomelanelia Divakar & A. Crespo is described as a new genus (type: E. masonii). Nipponoparmelia (Kurok.) K.H. Moon, Y. Ohmura & Kashiw. ex A. Crespo & al. is elevated to generic rank and 15 new combinations are proposed (in the genera Flavoparmelia, Parmotrema, Myelochroa, Melanelixia and Nipponoparmelia). A short discussion of the accepted genera is provided and remaining challenges and areas requiring additional taxon sampling are identified., Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion [CGL2008-01125-E/BOS, CGL2007-64652/BOS]; Ramon y Cajal [RYC02007-01576]; Field Museum; Swedish Research Council [VR 629-2001-5756, VR 621-2003-303, VR 621-2006-3760], We wish to thank Allison Knight, Gary Perlmutter, Ken Sweat, James Lendemer and Gennadii Urbanavichius for providing us with fresh material for our studies. We thank John Pormann and Sean Dilda from the Duke Shared Cluster Resource and Michael Nuhn from the Nano+Bio Center for their support with installing and running the necessary software. This study has been supported financially by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion (CGL2008-01125-E/BOS, CGL2007-64652/BOS), and Ramon y Cajal grant (RYC02007-01576) to PKD, a start up fund of The Field Museum to Thorsten Lumbsch, the Swedish Research Council grants VR 629-2001-5756, VR 621-2003-303 and VR 621-2006-3760 to Mats Wedin. We thank the Galapagos National Park for permission to analyze their material. This is publication no. 2001 of the Charles Darwin Research Station.