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OBJECTIVES Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality in the United States. Kentucky has the highest age-adjusted lung cancer rate and has one of the highest death rates from lung cancer in the country. Lobectomy is considered the standard therapy for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), whereas sublobar resection remains an option for selected patients. We investigated outcomes in patients having standard resections for lung cancer (lobectomy) compared with those having sublobar resections in a population with high prevalence of, and with a high death rate from, lung cancer. METHODS We studied patients having lung cancer resections at the University of Kentucky between 2002 and 2007. We reviewed the records of 222 patients who had either lobar or sublobar resections for NSCLC. This retrospective review identified key outcome variables, as well as short- and long-term survival. Propensity analysis allowed outcome comparison between patients having lobar and sublobar resections matched for preoperative variables. RESULTS Of the 222 study patients, 181 patients had lobectomies and 41 had sublobar resections. For all resections, lobectomy was associated with improved 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival rates compared with sublobar resections. Compared with patients having sublobar resections, lobectomy patients had significantly increased unadjusted perioperative morbidity (43.1% lobectomy vs 7.3% sublobar), but not mortality. After propensity analysis, sublobar resection predicted significantly reduced morbidity (6.3% vs 53.3%, P < 0.001), but not operative mortality (3.3% vs 3.3%, P = not significant), compared with lobectomy in patients matched for age, sex, cancer stage, and date of operation. Adjuvant chemotherapy combined with radiation therapy showed significantly improved long-term survival for either type of resection. Cox regression with adjustment for age, cancer stage, and postoperative complications suggested that neoadjuvant chemotherapy/radiotherapy increased long-term survival (P = 0.038, hazard ratio 0.49). CONCLUSIONS Sublobar resections for NSCLC have less morbidity compared with lobectomy, but at the cost of decreased long-term survival. These results imply that surgeons select patients for lobar or sublobar resections based on physiologic and functional parameters, and that differences in outcomes between these two groups reflect this selection bias. We suspect that these results are typical of surgical treatment of NSCLC in a heterogeneous high-risk population with a high penetration and prevalence of lung cancer.

Current guidelines recommend postoperative venous thromboembolism (VTE) chemoprophylaxis for moderate-risk patients (3% rate or greater) and extended-duration chemoprophylaxis for high-risk patients (6% or greater). Large-scale studies of and recommendations for esophagectomy patients are lacking. This study was designed to evaluate the timing, rates, and predictors of postesophagectomy VTE.Patients undergoing esophagectomies for cancer were identified from the 2005 to 2012 American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement database. Timing and rates of VTE (deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism, or both) were calculated. Events were stratified as predischarge or postdischarge. Perioperative factors associated with 30-day rates of predischarge and postdischarge VTE were analyzed.Of 3,208 patients analyzed, the surgical approach was Ivor-Lewis (n = 1,131, 35.3%), transhiatal (n = 945, 29.5%), three-field (n = 587, 18.3%), thoracoabdominal (n = 364, 11.3%), and nongastric conduit reconstruction (n = 181, 5.6%). Rates were 2.0% pulmonary embolism, 3.7% deep venous thrombosis, and 5.1% VTE. Overall median length of stay was 11 days (versus 19 days, p0.001, if predischarge VTE). Predischarge VTE occurred on median day 9, whereas postdischarge VTE occurred on day 19 (p0.001). Only 17% of VTE occurred after discharge. Multivariate analysis identified being male (odds ratio [OR] 2.09, p = 0.018), white race (OR 1.93, p = 0.004), prolonged ventilation (OR 3.24, p0.001), and other major complications (OR 1.90, p = 0.005) as independent predictors of predischarge VTE. Older age (OR 1.06 per year, p = 0.006) and major complications (OR 3.14, p = 0.004) were independently associated with postdischarge VTE.Postesophagectomy VTE occurs in a clinically significant proportion of esophageal cancer patients with identifiable risk factors for predischarge and postdischarge events. Elderly patients and patients with major complications are most likely to benefit from extended-duration chemoprophylaxis.

Every experienced surgeon has a patient whose life was saved by a blood transfusion (the "good"). In contrast, an overwhelming amount of evidence suggests that perioperative blood transfusion can be associated with adverse surgical outcomes (the "bad"). We wondered what patient characteristics, if any, can explain this clinical dichotomy with certain patients benefiting from transfusion, whereas others are harmed by this intervention.We queried the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Project database containing patient information entered between 2010 and 2012 to identify differences in mortality and morbidity among patients receiving blood transfusion within 72 hours of their operative procedure compared with those who did not receive any blood. We calculated the relative risk of developing a serious complication or of operative mortality in propensity-stratified patients with equivalent predicted risk of developing a serious complication or operative mortality.There were 470,407 patients in the study group. Of these, 32,953 patients (7.0%) received at least a single blood transfusion within 72 hours of operation. The percent of transfused patients who died or developed serious morbidity was 11.3% and 55.4% compared with 1.3% and 6.1% in nontransfused patients (both P .001). Operative mortality, rates of failure to rescue, and serious postoperative complications are increased in patients who receive a postoperative transfusion, both in unadjusted comparisons and in propensity-matched comparisons. Dividing patients into regression-stratified deciles with equal numbers of deaths in each group found that patients at the greatest risk for development of death or serious complications had nonsignificant risk of harm from blood transfusion, whereas patients in the least risk deciles had between an 8- and 12-fold increased risk of major adverse events associated with transfusion.We found that high-risk patients do not have a significant risk from blood transfusion, but low-risk patients have between an 8- and 10-fold excess risk of adverse outcomes when they receive a blood transfusion. We speculate that careful preoperative assessment of transfusion risk and intervention based on this assessment could minimize operative morbidity and mortality, especially because the patients at least risk are more likely to undergo elective operations and provide time for therapeutic interventions to improve transfusion risk profiles.

niversity of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, Kentucky; Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, Illinois; niversity of Florida, Jacksonville, Florida; Harefield Hospital, London, United Kingdom; Lahey Clinic, Burlington, Massachusetts; Duke niversity Medical Center, Raleigh, North Carolina; University of Pennsylvania Health System, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and ashington University Medical Center, St. Louis, Missouri

As many as 30% of journal articles may contain errors. Most of these errors involve the use of simple statistical tests or elementary principles of research design. Assessment of the thoracic surgical literature involves cautious circumspection. This does not mean that it is necessary to have in-depth knowledge of sophisticated statistics, rather it means that common sense understanding of a few principles of research design and simple statistics are necessary to determine the usefulness and believability of literature publications.

There was an increase in respiratory failure after coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) at Baptist Heart Institute during the first three quarters of 2000. Thirteen percent of patients required ventilation over 24 hours. The reintubation rate after initial extubation was 18.3% and the mortality rate in the group was 19.7%. After instituting an advanced care team during the first three quarters of 2002, the prolonged ventilation requirement was 7%, reintubation was 4.2%, and the mortality rate 15.4%. These results suggest that an advanced care team could improve clinical outcome and reduce health care costs.

Background Recent reports indicate that thoracoscopic lobectomy for lung cancer may be associated with lower rates of surgical upstaging. We queried a statewide cancer registry for differences in upstaging rates and survival by surgical approach. Methods The Kentucky Cancer Registry (KCR) collects data, including centralized pathology reporting, on cancer patients treated statewide. We performed a retrospective review from 2010 to 2012 to examine clinical and pathologic stage. We assessed rates of upstaging and whether the surgical approach, thoracotomy (THOR) versus minimally invasive techniques (video-assisted thoracic surgery; VATS), had an impact on final pathologic stage and survival. Results The KCR database from 2010 to 2012 contained information on 2830 lung cancer cases, 1964 having THOR procedure and 500 having VATS resections. Preoperatively, 36.4% of THOR were clinically stage 1a versus 47.4% VATS ( p = 0.0002). Of these, final pathologic stage remained stage 1a in 30.5% of THOR procedures and 38.0% of VATS ( p = 0.0002). The overall nodal upstaging rate for THOR was 9.9% and 4.8% for VATS ( p = 0.002). Decreased nodal upstaging was found with VATS, independent of tumor size and extent of resection (odds ratio 0.6, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.387 to 0.985, p = 0.04). However, improved survival was found with VATS compared with THOR (hazard ratio 0.733, 95% CI: 0.592 to 0.907, p = 0.0042). Conclusions Consistent with other reports, we report a lower upstaging rate with VATS. Nevertheless, there is a survival advantage in VATS patients. Although selection bias may play a role in these observed differences, the improved quality of life measures associated with VATS may explain survival improvement despite lower surgical upstaging.

Background This study explored the modern treatment of thoracic empyema. We evaluated outcomes of various operative approaches in both academic and nonacademic institutions. Methods We queried the Society of Thoracic Surgeons National Database for patients undergoing thoracic procedures with a primary diagnosis of empyema between 2009 and 2011. We compared treatment outcomes of patients having procedures at academic ( n = 1101, 28.3%) and nonacademic ( n = 2790, 71.7%) medical centers. Results Empyema treatments recorded in the database included tube thoracostomy ( n = 325, 8.4%), video-assisted thoracic surgery ( n = 1992, 51.2%), and thoracotomy ( n = 1574, 40.5%). Academic centers had higher rates of treatment by thoracostomy (13.8% vs. 6.2%), similar treatment rates of video-assisted thoracic surgery (49.9% vs. 51.7%), and lower rates of thoracotomy (36.3% vs. 42.1%) compared to nonacademic centers ( p 48 h was more frequent in the nonacademic centers (7.6% vs. 4.4%, p = 0.013). Conclusion Surgeons in both academic and nonacademic centers use selective surgical approaches for treatment of thoracic empyema, depending on the clinical condition of the patient, with fairly equivalent results across all procedure types.

Objective: Early hospital readmissions after cardiac procedures are both costly and harmful to patients. We investigated the factors that predispose to readmission to develop strategies to minimize this problem. Methods: As part of a prospective data collection, patients having cardiac procedures at our institution are routinely tracked for 30 days after their discharge from the hospital. We reviewed 2650 patients in our cardiac database who underwent operations over the past 5 years. We used univariate and multivariate statistical techniques to identify risks for readmission. Results: Of 2574 discharged patients, 252 (9.8%) required readmission. The most common causes of readmission are cardiac (42%), pulmonary (19%), gastrointestinal (10%), extremity complications (6.7%; deep vein thrombophlebitis, peripheral arterial vascular disease, and saphenous vein harvest site problems), sternal wound problems (7.5%), and metabolic problems (4%). Of more than 70 variables studied, only 6 are significant multivariate predictors of readmission: female sex ( P =.002); diabetes ( P =.001); chronic lung problems ( P =.011); increased distance between home and hospital ( P >.001); preoperative atrial fibrillation ( P =.002); and preoperative chronic renal insufficiency ( P =.002). Type of operation, redo procedures, and other intraoperative and postoperative variables are not important multivariate predictors of readmission. Prolonged hospital length of stay for the initial procedure did not cause more frequent readmission. The costs of initial hospitalization (operating room costs combined with postoperative in-hospital costs) were not significantly increased in those patients who required readmission. Conclusions: The high-risk patient for readmission is a woman with diabetes, chronic lung disease, renal insufficiency, and preoperative atrial fibrillation who lives at a distance from the hospital. Readmission does not depend on periprocedural variables (eg, cardiopulmonary bypass time) or on postoperative complications. High procedural costs from the initial hospitalization do not predispose to readmission. These results suggest interventions that may reduce readmission. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2001;122:278-86

As many as 15% of hospitalized patients have oropharyngeal dysphagia. The incidence and causes of postoperative oropharyngeal dysphagia (OD) in patients having cardiac operations are poorly documented and the best treatment is uncertain. We undertook a study to evaluate OD in patients having cardiac operations.As part of a quality improvement project, all patients operated on in 1998 and 1999 were monitored for the signs or symptoms of OD. Patients with OD had diagnostic and therapeutic interventions to limit adverse outcomes. At the end of the 2-year evaluation period, patient risk factors, diagnoses, results of interventions, and outcomes were measured.Thirty-one out of 1,042, patients (3%) had OD. OD is more common in older patients (p0.0001) with diabetes (p = 0.02), renal insufficiency (p = 0.012), hyperlipidemia (p = 0.046), and preoperative congestive heart failure (p0.0001), and in those having noncoronary artery bypass procedures (p0.0001). One patient with OD died from respiratory arrest, presumably secondary to aspiration. Modified barium swallow (MBS) identified oral dysphagia in 2 patients, pharyngeal dysphagia in 7 patients, and both oral and pharyngeal dysphagia in 17 patients. One patient had a structural defect (cervical osteophyte) causing dysphagia and 4 patients had no identifiable cause of dysphagia on MBS. Postoperative neurologic complications are more common in patients with OD. Ten of 31 patients (32%) with OD had some new neurologic complication after operation compared with 36 of 1,011 (3.5%) who had a postoperative neurologic problem without OD. In 19 patients with OD no cause for swallowing difficulty was identified. Specifically, no metabolic, myopathic, or infectious abnormalities were identified in any patient with OD. Hospital charges were significantly increased in patients with OD ($69,320 versus $36,087, p0.0001). Therapy consisting of modification of eating behavior and swallowing technique and in some severe cases enteral or parenteral feeding was successful in all patients except 1, but 4 patients required more than 4 months of supportive care before return to oral feeding was possible.OD is associated with increased cost and morbidity. Older patients with diabetes, preoperative heart failure, and renal insufficiency are at increased risk for OD. Early recognition and intervention is likely to result in satisfactory outcome but may be associated with a protracted postoperative course.

Baltoma is a rare cause of pulmonary nodules, originating from Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (BALT). Certain characteristic findings are helpful for diagnosis but do not substitute for tissue diagnosis. Adequate sampling of nodules is necessary for definitive diagnosis by the pathologist. This slow growing malignant tumor responds well to therapy.

Hemorrhage is a leading cause of preventable morbidity and mortality in and out of the operating room. Surgical bleeding can have a significant impact on both patient outcomes and health care costs. Poor hemorrhage control is strongly linked with untoward outcomes and drives clinicians to use treatment methods that may further lead to increased morbidity and mortality. 1,2 Adverse events related to bleeding and blood transfusion are dosedependent, with increased transfusion rates associated with higher morbidity. 3,4 A retrospective analysis of more than 1 million surgical procedures of varying types found that bleeding-related surgical complications occurred in 29.9% of patient operations, translating into a 6-day average increase in hospital length of stay. 5 In this study

Background . To evaluate the long-term patency of endarterectomized coronary vessels, we studied patients having recatheterization after coronary artery bypass grafting. Methods . Forty-one clinical and angiographic variables were analyzed in 97 study patients who had coronary endarterectomy (CE) and in 154 control patients who did not have CE but who had repeat catheterization after coronary artery bypass grafting. Results . Ninety-seven patients had 132 CEs. The right coronary artery was the most commonly endarterectomized vessel (73 of the 132 endarterectomized vessels). At a mean of 7.1 years of follow-up, significantly fewer bypass grafts to endarterectomized vessels were patent compared with nonendarterectomized vessels (40% of endarterectomized vessels compared with 58% of nonendarterectomized vessels in study patients and 65% in control patients, p = 0.0003). The only predictor of long-term CE graft patency is age-adjusted body surface area ( p = 0.0068). Patency in grafts to nonendarterectomized vessels is diminished by hypertension ( p = 0.046) and current cigarette use ( p = 0.024) and improved by use of mammary artery grafting ( p Conclusions . These results show that long-term patency in bypass grafts to endarterectomized vessels is less common than in nonendarterectomized vessels and that this patency is related to larger body size. Patency in nonendarterectomized vessels is reduced by risks of arteriosclerosis. This suggests that CE should be used with caution in smaller patients and that aggressive control of risk factors for atherogenesis is particularly important in patients who have CE. On the basis of these results, we speculate that the extent of disease is advanced in patients who require CE.

Development of the Human Genome Project (HGP) holds great promise for identifying causes and treatments of human disease. This promise is mostly unfulfilled but is spiced with the development of remarkable, almost astounding, new knowledge. The course from inception of the HGP to today was ‘‘rocky’’ at best and sadly dysfunctional at worst. Beginning in May of 1985 starting with a workshop to discuss sequencing the human genome held in Santa Fe, NewMexico, until the HGP was declared complete in April 2003, there were private enterprise, government involvement, and pseudo-government initiatives that contributed to ultimate public availability of the human genome. Today, the sequence of the DNA in the human genome is stored in databases available to anyone with access to the Internet. How the genome came to be publically available amounts to a ‘‘swashbuckling’’ clash that ultimately led to the first publication of the draft of the human genome by a publically funded entity, the University of California Santa Cruz, in 2000. Today, the ultimate price tag of the HGP is approximately $3 billion with more to come. So far, the return on this investment is modest. In fact, the more we learn about the human genome, the more levels of complexity become apparent. The article by Hsu and colleagues in this issue of the Journal is an example of this complexity. The realization that cancer progression required the participation of cellular genes provided one of several key rationales for embarking on the HGP in 1985. Cancer is ultimately a disease of unregulated gene expression. The reference human genome provided a building block for understanding the full spectrum of somatic changes leading to cancer. With increased understanding of the human genome and the transcription of genetic information, realization of the importance of epigenetic alterations in the transcription process surfaced. More specifically, study of cancer epigenetics identified epigenetic modifications to the genome of

What are microparticles? Microparticles are part of the spectrum of extracellular vesicles that include exosomes, microparticles, and apoptotic bodies. Extracellular vesicles originate from various subcellular compartments and appear in plasma, urine, saliva, and inflammatory tissues. Microparticles are vesicles that are shed from cells, lack a nucleus, contain a lipid membrane, and are defined by their sizes and the expression on their surfaces of antigens specific to their cells of origin. Most microparticles are small membrane-derived vesicles that come from activated or apoptotic platelets and to a lesser extent from red blood cells. They are released into the circulation and express antigens that allow identification, typically by specific monoclonal antibodies. They serve as biomarkers, procoagulant agents, participants in atherogenesis, and agents of transfer of biologic information. They have impermeable membranes containing receptors that allow identification of the cell of origin and provide binding sites that attach to living cells. Microparticles range in size from 100 to 1000 nm, allowing detection and specific identification by flow cytometry gated to this size range and with specific monoclonal antibody probes. The article by Jy and coauthors published in this issue of the Journal uses flow cytometry with specific markers for red blood cell surface antigens and for platelet surface antigens to measure microparticles in the peripheral blood of patients undergoing cardiac operations. They found surprising results.

BACKGROUND As the population ages, octogenarians are becoming the fastest growing patient demographic for non-small-cell lung cancer. We examined lobectomies and 30-day outcomes in this group compared with younger patients to gain insight into the optimal treatment for this challenging group. METHODS We analyzed data from the American College of Surgeons National Quality Improvement Program for patients with lung cancer undergoing lobectomy during calendar years 2005-2010. We compared clinical risk factors, intraoperative factors, and 30-day operative mortality and major morbidity in octogenarians versus younger patients undergoing either open traditional thoracotomy (OPEN) or video-assisted (VATS) pulmonary lobar resection. RESULTS Of 2171 patients who had lobar resections for lung cancer, 245 (11%) were octogenarians. Six hundred eight lobectomies (28.0%) were VATS procedures and 1563 (72.0%) were OPEN procedures. The VATS rate increased as patient age increased (34% VATS for octogenarians vs 27% for patients younger than 80 years; P = 0.01). Thoracic surgeons performed VATS with greater frequency compared with general surgeons, especially in octogenarians (41% VATS for thoracic surgeons vs 29% for general surgeons; P < 0.001). Univariate analysis suggests significantly increased major morbidity (pulmonary, renal, and sepsis), but not operative mortality in octogenarians; however, multivariate predictors of major morbidity include OPEN procedures, preoperative decreased functional status, history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, preoperative sepsis, prior radiation, diabetes, and dyspnea on exertion (all P < 0.05), but they do not include advanced age. CONCLUSIONS Comorbidities predict most increased morbidity in octogenarians, and advanced age per se is not an important multivariate predictor of postoperative morbidity or mortality. The frequency of VATS lobectomy increased with increasing patient age, and VATS predisposes to decreased morbidity in octogenarians.

Background Short postoperative ventilation times are accepted as a marker of quality. This analysis assesses center level variation in postoperative ventilation time in a subset of patients undergoing isolated coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Methods In 2009 and 2010, 325,129 patients in the STS Adult Cardiac Surgery Database underwent isolated CABG. Patients were excluded if they were intubated before entering the operating room, required ventilation for greater than 24 hours, or had missing data on key covariates. The final study cohort was 274,231 isolated CABG patients from 1,008 centers. Bayesian hierarchical models were used to assess between-center variation in ventilation time and to explore the effect of center-level covariates. Analyses were performed with and without adjusting for case mix. Results After adjusting for case mix, the ratio of median ventilator time at the 90th percentile of the center-level distribution compared with the tenth percentile was 9.0:5.0 = 1.8 (95% credible interval: 1.79 to 1.85). This ratio illustrates the scale of between-center differences: centers above the 90th percentile have a ventilation time of at least 1.8 times that of centers below the tenth percentile. Smaller hospital volume, presence of a residency program, and some census regions were associated with longer ventilation times. Conclusions After adjustment for severity of illness, substantial inter-center variation exists in postoperative ventilation time in this subset of patients undergoing isolated CABG. This finding represents an opportunity for multi-institutional quality improvement initiatives designed to limit variations in ventilator management and achieve the shortest possible ventilation times for all patients, thus benefiting both clinical outcomes and resource utilization.

Platelet abnormalities have been blamed for the hemostatic defect that develops after cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), but investigators have not been able to agree upon an intrinsic platelet abnormality responsible for the observed defect. To better define the blood components responsible for this post-operative hemostatic defect, we compared platelet function in whole blood (WB) to that in platelet-rich plasma (PRP) in 33 patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting. We measured platelet aggregation in response to various platelet agonists, including thrombin and TRAP-6 (a 6-amino acid peptide that activates the thrombin "tethered ligand" receptor site). In WB there was a lasting, diminished response to TRAP-6, but not to gamma-thrombin, after CPB. Control experiments showed that this diminished response to TRAP-6: (1) was not related to heparin or heparin-protamine complexes, (2) was not the result of hemodilution during CPB, (3) was not related to increased amounts of naturally occurring enzymes (aminopeptidases) that degrade TRAP, and (4) was not able to be reversed by the addition of as much as a 10-fold excess of the usual TRAP-6 aggregating dose to WB preparations. In contrast, no corresponding defect in platelet aggregation could be identified in PRP obtained from patients after CPB. These results show that, in post-operative blood samples, blood components present in WB and not in PRP (eg, red blood cells, activated white cells or platelets bound to white cells) diminish the ability of TRAP peptides to activate the thrombin receptor but do not decrease the ability of gamma-thrombin to induce platelet aggregation. This suggests that for circulating platelets after CPB: (1) interactions of platelets with other blood cell elements are the cause of altered postoperative platelet reactivity rather than any intrinsic CPB-induced platelet defect, (2) drugs, such as aprotinin, that limit activation of white cells and the fibrinolytic system may also have beneficial effects on platelet function after CPB, and (3) alternate mechanisms exist that allow thrombin, but not TRAP-6, to activate platelets normally after CPB (perhaps a second, as yet undefined, thrombin receptor).

Carotid endarterectomy (CEA) is a common surgical procedure. Its efficacy in the prevention of stroke has been proven by multiple clinical trials including North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial and Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study. Currently, there is a wide variability in the technique of this operation. This study was performed to determine the variability of CEA at the University of Kentucky Medical Center with a focus on cost and short-term outcome. We reviewed the charts of a consecutive series of 349 patients undergoing CEA at our institution. We analyzed the variability in shunt used across surgeons, intraoperative variables, cost, and outcome. Data on 374 procedures on 349 patients who underwent CEA showed shunt utilization varied significantly by surgeon from 3 to 94%. Patch utilization also varied significantly by surgeon. Two in-hospital deaths occurred in the shunt group (1.3%) and none in the no-shunt group. Shunt placement was associated with 1 hour 24 minutes increase in operative time from 2 hours 3 minutes in the no-shunt group to 3 hours 27 minutes in the shunt group (t test, p

Pleural effusions (PE) occur frequently among patients with various types of advanced malignancies, resulting in remarkably decreased quality of life. Treatment of malignant PE includes placement of a chest tube with subsequent placement of a tunneled pleural catheter. We reviewed our experience with tunneled pleural catheter use to assess outcomes and resource utilization of this intervention. A retrospective study of consecutive patients (n = 163, including 41 outpatients) who were treated between July 2001 and April 2008 with tunneled pleural catheters was performed to evaluate operative and discharge outcomes. The average age of the patients was 59.32 years (range: 24 to 89). Lung cancer, breast cancer, and ovarian cancer were common primary diseases in this patient population. The mean hospital stay after tunneled pleural catheter placement was 3.19 days (range: 0 to 56), with 41 patients treated as outpatients. Thirteen inpatient deaths were related to the patients' primary diseases, but no deaths were due to drain placement itself. Eight patients (4.91%) required reoperation to replace a nonfunctioning drain or to add an additional drain, and six patients underwent a second procedure to place a contralateral drain. One hundred twenty-six patients (77.30%) were discharged home following the procedure and hospital stay. Fifty-five people achieved spontaneous pleurodesis. Tunneled pleural catheter placement is a safe and effective approach to the treatment of PE. The advantages of tunneled pleural catheter placement include symptomatic relief and improved quality of life. This method allows patients to spend time at home with their family and avoid prolonged hospitalization.

Objective To examine outcomes in patients who receive small amounts of intraoperative blood transfusion. Design Longitudinal, uncontrolled observational study evaluating results of intraoperative transfusion in patients entered into the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database. We made propensity-matched comparisons between patients who received and did not receive intraoperative transfusion to minimize confounding when estimating the effect of intraoperative transfusion on postoperative outcomes. Setting We queried the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database for patients undergoing operations between January 1, 2005, and December 31, 2009. Patients A large sample of surgical patients from 173 hospitals throughout the United States. Main Outcome Measures Operative mortality and serious perioperative morbidity (≥1 of 20 complications). Results After exclusions, 941 496 operations were analyzed in patients from 173 hospitals. Most patients (893 205 patients [94.9%]) did not receive intraoperative transfusions. Patients who received intraoperative infusion of 1 unit of packed red blood cells (15 186 patients [1.6%]) had higher unadjusted rates of mortality and more serious morbidity. These rates further increased with intraoperative transfusion of more than 1 unit of packed red blood cells in a dose-dependent manner. After propensity matching to adjust for multiple preoperative risks, transfusion of a single unit of packed red blood cells increased the multivariate risk of mortality, wound problems, pulmonary complications, postoperative renal dysfunction, systemic sepsis, composite morbidity, and postoperative length of stay compared with propensity-matched patients who did not receive intraoperative transfusion. Conclusions There is a dose-dependent adverse effect of intraoperative blood transfusion. It is likely that a small, possibly discretionary amount of intraoperative transfusion leads to increased mortality, morbidity, and resource use, suggesting that caution should be used with intraoperative transfusions for mildly hypovolemic or anemic patients.

The accuracy of risk adjustment is important in developing surgeon profiles. As surgeon profiles are obtained from observational, nonrandomized data, we hypothesized that selection bias exists in how patients are matched with surgeons and that this bias might influence surgeon profiles. We used the Society of Thoracic Surgeons risk model to calculate observed to expected (O/E) mortality ratios for each of six cardiac surgeons at a single institution. Propensity scores evaluated selection bias that might influence development of risk-adjusted mortality profiles. Six surgeons (four high and two low O/E ratios) performed 2298 coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) operations over 4 years. Multivariate predictors of operative mortality included preoperative shock, advanced age, and renal dysfunction, but not the surgeon performing CABG. When patients were stratified into quartiles based on the propensity score for operative death, 83% of operative deaths (50 of 60) were in the highest risk quartile. There were significant differences in the number of high-risk patients operated upon by each surgeon. One surgeon had significantly more patients in the highest risk quartile and two surgeons had significantly less patients in the highest risk quartile (p

Preoperative antiplatelet drug use is common in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). The impact of these drugs on bleeding and blood transfusion varies. We hypothesize that review of available evidence regarding drug-related bleeding risk, underlying mechanisms of platelet dysfunction, and variations in patient response to antiplatelet drugs will aid surgeons as they assess preoperative risk and attempt to limit perioperative bleeding. The purpose of this review is to (1) examine the role that antiplatelet drugs play in excessive postoperative blood transfusion, (2) identify possible mechanisms to explain patient response to antiplatelet drugs, and (3) formulate a strategy to limit excessive blood product usage in these patients. We reviewed available published evidence regarding bleeding risk in patients taking preoperative antiplatelet drugs. In addition, we summarized our previous research into mechanisms of antiplatelet drug-related platelet dysfunction. Aspirin users have a slight but significant increase in blood product usage after CABG (0.5 U of nonautologous blood per treated patient). Platelet adenosine diphosphate (ADP) receptor inhibitors are more potent antiplatelet drugs than aspirin but have a half-life similar to aspirin, around 5 to 10 days. The American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons guidelines recommend discontinuation, if possible, of ADP inhibitors 5 to 7 days before operation because of excessive bleeding risk, whereas aspirin should be continued during the entire perioperative period in most patients. Individual variability in response to aspirin and other antiplatelet drugs is common with both hyper- and hyporesponsiveness seen in 5 to 25% of patients. Use of preoperative antiplatelet drugs is a risk factor for increased perioperative bleeding and blood transfusion. Point-of-care tests can identify patients at high risk for perioperative bleeding and blood transfusion, although these tests have limitations. Available evidence suggests that multiple blood conservation techniques benefit high-risk patients taking antiplatelet drugs before operation. Guidelines for patients who take aspirin and/or thienopyridines before cardiac procedures include some or all of the following: (1) preoperative identification of high-risk patients using point-of-care testing; (2) withdrawal of aspirin or other antiplatelet drugs for a few days and delay of operation in patients at high risk for bleeding if clinical circumstances permit; (3) selective perioperative use of evidence-based blood conservation interventions (e.g., short-course erythropoietin, off-pump procedures, and use of intraoperative blood conservation techniques), especially in high-risk patients; and (4) platelet transfusions if clinical bleeding occurs.

Background Practice guidelines reflect published literature. Because of the ever changing literature base, it is necessary to update and revise guideline recommendations from time to time. The Society of Thoracic Surgeons recommends review and possible update of previously published guidelines at least every three years. This summary is an update of the blood conservation guideline published in 2007. Methods The search methods used in the current version differ compared to the previously published guideline. Literature searches were conducted using standardized MeSH terms from the National Library of Medicine PUBMED database list of search terms. The following terms comprised the standard baseline search terms for all topics and were connected with the logical ‘OR' connector—Extracorporeal circulation (MeSH number E04.292), cardiovascular surgical procedures (MeSH number E04.100), and vascular diseases (MeSH number C14.907). Use of these broad search terms allowed specific topics to be added to the search with the logical ‘AND' connector. Results In this 2011 guideline update, areas of major revision include: 1) management of dual anti-platelet therapy before operation, 2) use of drugs that augment red blood cell volume or limit blood loss, 3) use of blood derivatives including fresh frozen plasma, Factor XIII, leukoreduced red blood cells, platelet plasmapheresis, recombinant Factor VII, antithrombin III, and Factor IX concentrates, 4) changes in management of blood salvage, 5) use of minimally invasive procedures to limit perioperative bleeding and blood transfusion, 6) recommendations for blood conservation related to extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and cardiopulmonary perfusion, 7) use of topical hemostatic agents, and 8) new insights into the value of team interventions in blood management. Conclusions Much has changed since the previously published 2007 STS blood management guidelines and this document contains new and revised recommendations.

Background: We observed significant morbidity and mortality in patients with preexisting cardiac disease who suffer severe traumatic injuries. We wondered about the types of injury seen and about the cardiac risks factors that predispose to worse outcomes in these patients. Our hypothesis is that significant cardiac comorbidity is associated with adverse trauma outcomes. Methods: We reviewed 10,144 trauma admissions to the University of Kentucky during a 5-year period (2002-2007) in patients 21 years or older. The types and extent of injuries were characterized, and risk factors for poor outcome were assessed. Propensity analysis assessed variable interaction and adjusted for important multivariate cardiovascular risk factors. Results: Of the 10,144 adult trauma patients, there was adequate cardiovascular history before emergency treatment in 5,971 patients (58.9%). Of the 700 trauma deaths, 236 (33.7%) had adequate medical history to allow accurate assessment of cardiovascular disease. Significant multivariate predictors of trauma-related death included older age (odds ratio [OR] = 0.938), injury severity score (OR = 0.893 per unit score), major burn (OR = 5.907), assault with a weapon (OR = 3.205), systolic blood pressure divided by Glasgow coma score (OR = 0.958 per score unit), and female (OR = 1.629). In the cohort of 236 deaths with adequate medical history, severe head and chest injuries caused death in 187 patients (79.2%). Significant propensity-adjusted cardiovascular risks of trauma death included preinjury warfarin use (OR = 2.309, p = 0.001), congestive heart failure (CHF) (OR = 2.060, p = 0.011), and preinjury beta-blocker use (OR = 2.62, p = 0.001). The highest mortality rates occurred in patients with combinations of these cardiovascular risk factors. For example, patients on warfarin with CHF had a 26.3% mortality rate, whereas patients on warfarin and beta-blocker had a 27.3% mortality rate. Conclusions: Preinjury cardiac risk factors, especially preinjury warfarin, beta-blocker use, and CHF, are independent multivariate predictors of mortality in patients suffering significant trauma. Although head and chest injuries are the most frequent causes of death, patients with more than one preinjury cardiac risk factor have 5 to 10 times the mortality risk compared with those without cardiac risks.

Air leaks are a common problem after pulmonary resection and can be a source of significant morbidity and mortality. Air leaks are associated with prolonged hospital stays, and infectious and cardiopulmonary complications, and they occasionally require reoperation. Despite reasonably robust literature on the topic, the optimal approaches to manage postoperative air leaks remain controversial. We used available literature and expert consensus to formulate suggestions regarding the preferred approaches to both routine and prolonged alveolar air leaks. This review summarizes our findings.

Since 1999, The Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) has published two risk models that can be used to adjust the results of valve surgery combined with coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG). The most recent was developed from data for patients who had surgery between 1994 and 1997 using operative mortality as the only endpoint. Furthermore, this model did not specifically consider mitral valve repair plus CABG, an increasingly common procedure. Consistent with STS policy of periodically updating and improving its risk models, new models for valve surgery combined with CABG have been developed. These models specifically address both perioperative morbidity and mitral valve repair, and they are based on contemporary data.The final study population consisted of 101,661 procedures, including aortic valve replacement (AVR) plus CABG, mitral valve replacement (MVR) plus CABG, or mitral valve repair (MVRepair) plus CABG between January 1, 2002, and December 31, 2006. Model outcomes included operative mortality, stroke, deep sternal wound infection, reoperation, prolonged ventilation, renal failure, composite major morbidity or mortality, prolonged postoperative length of stay, and short postoperative length of stay. Candidate variables were screened for frequency of missing data, and imputation techniques were used where appropriate. Stepwise variable selection was employed, supplemented by advice from an expert panel of cardiac surgeons and biostatisticians. Several variables were forced into models to insure face validity (eg, atrial fibrillation for the permanent stroke model, sex for all models). Based on preliminary analyses of the data, a single model was employed for valve plus CABG, with indicator variables for the specific type of procedure. Interaction terms were included to allow for differential impact of predictor variables depending on procedure type. After validating the model in the 40% validation sample, the development and validation samples were then combined, and the final model coefficients were estimated using the overall 100% combined sample. The final logistic regression model was estimated using generalized estimating equations to account for clustering of patients within institutions.The c-index for mortality prediction for the overall valve plus CABG population was 0.75. Morbidity model c-indices for specific complications (permanent stroke, renal failure, prolonged ventilation24 hours, deep sternal wound infection, reoperation for any reason, major morbidity or mortality composite, and prolonged postoperative length of stay) for the overall group of valve plus CABG procedures ranged from 0.622 to 0.724, and calibration was excellent.New STS risk models have been developed for heart valve surgery combined with CABG. These are the first valve plus CABG models that also include risk prediction for individual major morbidities, composite major morbidity or mortality, and short and prolonged length of stay.

The first version of The Society of Thoracic Surgeons National Adult Cardiac Surgery Database (STS NCD) was developed nearly 2 decades ago. Since its inception, the number of participants has grown dramatically, patient acuity has increased, and overall outcomes have consistently improved. To adjust for these and other changes, all STS risk models have undergone periodic revisions. This report provides a detailed description of the 2008 STS risk model for coronary artery bypass grafting surgery (CABG).The study population consisted of 774,881 isolated CABG procedures performed on adult patients aged 20 to 100 years between January 1, 2002, and December 31, 2006, at 819 STS NCD participating centers. This cohort was randomly divided into a 60% training (development) sample and a 40% test (validation) sample. The development sample was used to identify predictor variables and estimate model coefficients. The validation sample was used to assess model calibration and discrimination. Model outcomes included operative mortality, renal failure, stroke, reoperation for any cause, prolonged ventilation, deep sternal wound infection, composite major morbidity or mortality, prolonged length of stay (14 days), and short length of stay (6 days and alive). Candidate predictor variables were selected based on their availability in versions 2.35, 2.41, and 2.52.1 of the STS NCD and their presence in (or ability to be mapped to) version 2.61. Potential predictor variables were screened for overall prevalence in the study population, missing data frequency, coding concerns, bivariate relationships with outcomes, and their presence in previous STS or other CABG risk models. Supervised backwards selection was then performed with input from an expert panel of cardiac surgeons and biostatisticians. After successfully validating the fit of the models, the development and validation samples were subsequently combined, and the final regression coefficients were estimated using the overall combined (development plus validation) sample.The c-index for the mortality model was 0.812, and the c-indices for other endpoints ranged from 0.653 for reoperation to 0.793 for renal failure in the validation sample. Plots of observed versus predicted event rates revealed acceptable calibration in the overall population and in numerous subgroups. When patients were grouped into categories of predicted risk, the absolute difference between the observed and expected event rates was less than 1.5% for each endpoint. The final model intercept and coefficients are provided.New STS risk models have been developed for CABG mortality and eight other endpoints. Detailed descriptions of model development and testing are provided, together with the final algorithm. Overall model performance is excellent.

Background Adjustment for case-mix is essential when using observational data to compare surgical techniques or providers. That is most often accomplished through the use of risk models that account for preoperative patient factors that may impact outcomes. The Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) uses such risk models to create risk-adjusted performance reports for participants in the STS National Adult Cardiac Surgery Database (NCD). Although risk models were initially developed for coronary artery bypass surgery, similar models have now been developed for use with heart valve surgery, particularly as the proportion of such procedures has increased. The last published STS model for isolated valve surgery was based on data from 1994 to 1997 and did not include patients undergoing mitral valve repair. STS has developed new valve surgery models using contemporary data that include both valve repair as well as replacement. Expanding upon existing valve models, the new STS models include several nonfatal complications in addition to mortality. Methods Using STS data from 2002 to 2006, isolated valve surgery risk models were developed for operative mortality, permanent stroke, renal failure, prolonged ventilation (> 24 hours), deep sternal wound infection, reoperation for any reason, a major morbidity or mortality composite endpoint, prolonged postoperative length of stay, and short postoperative length of stay. The study population consisted of adult patients who underwent one of three types of valve surgery: isolated aortic valve replacement (n = 67,292), isolated mitral valve replacement (n = 21,229), or isolated mitral valve repair (n = 21,238). The population was divided into a 60% development sample and a 40% validation sample. After an initial empirical investigation, the three surgery groups were combined into a single logistic regression model with numerous interactions to allow the covariate effects to differ across these groups. Variables were selected based on a combination of automated stepwise selection and expert panel review. Results Unadjusted operative mortality (in-hospital regardless of timing, and 30-day regardless of venue) for all isolated valve procedures was 3.4%, and unadjusted in-hospital morbidity rates ranged from 0.3% for deep sternal wound infection to 11.8% for prolonged ventilation. The number of predictors in each model ranged from 10 covariates in the sternal infection model to 24 covariates in the composite mortality plus morbidity model. Discrimination as measured by the c-index ranged from 0.639 for reoperation to 0.799 for mortality. When patients in the validation sample were grouped into 10 categories based on deciles of predicted risk, the average absolute difference between observed versus predicted events within these groups ranged from 0.06% for deep sternal wound infection to 1.06% for prolonged postoperative stay. Conclusions The new STS risk models for valve surgery include mitral valve repair as well as multiple endpoints other than mortality. Model coefficients are provided and an online risk calculator is publicly available from The Society of Thoracic Surgeons website.

BACKGROUND: We observed significant morbidity and mortality in patients who suffer severe traumatic injuries with pre-existing cardiac disease. We wondered about the cardiac risks factors that predispose to worse outcomes in these patients. METHODS: We reviewed 10,144 trauma admissions to the University of Kentucky over a 5 year period (2002 to 2007) in patients 21 years or older. The types and extent of injuries were characterized and risk factors for poor outcome were assessed. RESULTS: Of the 10,144 trauma patients, adequate cardiovascular history was obtained before emergency treatment in 5971 patients (58.9%). Of the 700 trauma deaths, 236 (33.7%) had adequate medical history to allow accurate assessment of cardiovascular risk. Severe head & chest injuries caused death in most patients (79.2%). Significant multivariate predictors of trauma-related death in this cohort included Glascow coma score (O.R. = 1.266/score unit), older age (O.R. = 0.931/year), injury severity score (O.R. = 1.096/unit score), major burn (O.R. = 7.36), assault with a weapon (O.R. = 3.236), and female gender (O.R. = 1.561). Importantly, after propensity adjustment, significant cardiovascular mortality risks included pre-injury warfarin therapy, congestive heart failure (CHF), & beta-blocker use. The highest mortality rates occurred in patients with combinations of these cardiovascular risk factors (see table ). CONCLUSIONS: Pre-injury cardiac risk factors, especially pre-injury warfarin, beta-blocker use and CHF, are independent multivariate predictors of mortality in patients suffering significant trauma. Patients with more than one pre-injury cardiac risk factor have 2 to 4 times the mortality risk compared to those without cardiac risks. : Category (Complete) : Miscellaneous Keyword (Complete) : Trauma ; Cardiac risks ; warfarin Samson Resident Award (Complete): *Paul C. Samson Award (Required) : No Status: Complete Propensity Adjusted Cardiovascular Risk Factors for Trauma Mortality (C-statistic = 0.940)

Background Cardiac adverse events (CAEs) are relatively infrequent, but highly lethal, after noncardiac operations. The value of available risk scoring systems is uncertain and these systems can be outdated. We used the Patient Safety in Surgery Study database to develop and test a model to predict patient risk for CAEs after general and vascular surgical operations. Study Design As part of the Patient Safety in Surgery Study, following the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program's protocol, multiple demographic, preoperative, perioperative, and outcomes variables were measured during a 3-year period. Data from 128 Veterans Affairs medical center hospitals and from 14 academic medical centers on 183,069 patients were used in a logistic regression analysis to model multivariable predictors of serious CAEs (cardiac arrest or acute myocardial infarction within 30 days of operation). Results CAEs occurred in 2,362 patients (1.29%) and of these, 59.44% expired. Multivariable stepwise logistic regression identified 20 independent predictors of CAEs, which excluded most cardiac-specific risk factors. The most important multivariable predictors of CAE were American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status classification, work relative value units of the most complex procedure, age, and type of operation. A risk prediction scoring system using the logistic regression odds ratios proved to be a useful prediction tool when tested using a random sample from the database. Conclusions CAEs after noncardiac operations are relatively infrequent but highly lethal. Operation type and urgency and American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status assessment are important independent predictors of cardiac morbidity, but angina, recent MI, and earlier cardiac operation are not. A prediction scoring system based on the Patient Safety in Surgery Study multivariable odds ratios is likely to be predictive of future events in a similar population requiring noncardiac procedures. This risk model can also serve as a tool to measure quality and effectiveness of care by providers who perform noncardiac operations.

Background Lifestyle modification and appropriate medical therapy improve long-term outcomes following coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Our institutional experience suggested that evidence-based recommendations were not being followed postdischarge after CABG. We undertook this study to document our rate of compliance with evidence-based guidelines and to correct deficiencies in our discharge practices. Methods Seven evidence-based interventions were studied after CABG: (1) institution of beta-blocker therapy, (2) angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor therapy, (3) aspirin, (4) lipid-lowering therapy, (5) smoking cessation intervention, (6) heart-healthy diet therapy, and (7) physical activity recommendations. The rate of compliance with guidelines in 50 control patients was measured at discharge. A multidisciplinary team including cardiac surgeons, nurses, dieticians, physical therapists, and clinical pharmacists evaluated the guideline compliance in the control group and developed interventions to assure guideline compliance at the time of discharge. A subsequent study group of 50 patients was then assessed prospectively to measure the guideline compliance after institution of intervention programs. The multidisciplinary team agreed on predefined acceptable compliance limits as follows: (1) >80% of patients receive ACE inhibitors at discharge, (2) 100% of patients receive beta-blockers, aspirin, and lipid-lowering agents at discharge, and (3) 100% of patients receive lifestyle modification counseling at discharge. Compliance with guidelines was defined as documentation in the medical record of provision of medications and lifestyle counseling at the time of discharge. Results In the control group, the rate of guideline compliance was surprisingly low. Rates of compliance with guidelines increased significantly after the multidisciplinary interventions were undertaken. Conclusions We conclude that compliance with guidelines known to improve long-term outcome is suboptimal after CABG. A multidisciplinary intervention program can improve compliance with currently accepted guidelines and quality indicators in patients following CABG.

Gender differences in coronary bypass surgery have been the focus of numerous publications in recent years. Unfortunately these publications have contradictions that leave surgeons with conflicting recommendations for care. To help resolve these inconsistencies, The Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) Workforce on Evidence-Based Surgery has carried out an objective review of published information in this field. The STS Workforce recognizes that there are important gender issues associated with referral bias, the impact of body size, psychosocial factors, and postoperative support, but the intent of this guideline is to focus specifically on perioperative management. As with all practice guidelines, our goal is to gather the most important information, analyze the information in a logical and unbiased fashion, and make recommendations based solely on the available evidence.