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Switchable hydrogel-layered composite membranes can be used for the analysis of particle size distributions. This functionality is provided by pores with controllable diameter. In order to obtain a device that can be used to measure the cell size distribution in native biological samples, lots of switchable pores are required. In the current work, we model and simulate the mechanical behavior of active composite membranes with switchable pores. This is done in order to find the maximum number of pores that can be integrated into a membrane without cross-influencing effects on the actuation of the pores. Therefore, we investigate (1) the interaction of active pores inside the multifunctional composite and (2) the membrane bending under microfluidic pressure load. We show that through miniaturization, sufficient pores can be added to a permeation control membrane for processing native blood samples. The envisioned device allows a parallelized measurement of cell sizes in a simple lab-on-a-chip setup.

In der vorliegenden Dissertationsschrift wird ein thermo-elektro-mechanisches Modell zur Simulation des Verhaltens von dielektrischen Elastomeraktoren vorgestellt. Zur Beschreibung der elektrischen und thermischen Eigenschaften werden lineare Modelle verwendet. Ein isotropes viskohyperelastisches mechanisches Materialmodell wird auf Grundlage der Hyperelastizität nach Ogden und der Beschreibung viskosen Verhaltens mittels Prony-Reihen eingesetzt. Die elektromechanische Kopplung ist durch die elektrostatische Anziehungskraft geladener Elektroden begründet. Die verlustbehafteten Prozesse der elektromechanischen Energieumwandlung bzw. des Ladungstransports führen zu einer Verlustleistung, welche in Wärme umgewandelt wird. Auf diese Weise wird eine unidirektionale Kopplung zwischen dem elektromechanischen und dem thermischen Feld erreicht. Die entsprechenden Materialparameter wurden der Literatur entnommen oder von Daten experimenteller Untersuchungen abgeleitet, welche am Institut für Elektromechanische Konstruktion (EMK) der Technischen Universität Darmstadt durchgeführt wurden. Mittels der Finite-Elemente-Methode wurde das thermo-elektro-mechanischen Modell zur Simulation zweier Testgeometrien verwendet. Dabei wurde eine gute qualitative Übereinstimmungen zwischen den Ergebnissen der numerisch Simulation und den experimentellen Beobachtungen des EMK erreicht. Die Ursachen quantitativer Differenzen zwischen den experimentell ermittelten und den numerisch berechneten Temperaturen werden untersucht und diskutiert. Abgeleitet aus den Ergebnissen der numerischen Untersuchungen werden abschließend Vorschläge zu einer Verringerung der dissipationsbedingten Erwärmung unterbreitet. Diese Vorschläge sind durch konstruktive, beispielsweise geometrische oder materielle, Eigenschaften von DE-Aktoren begründet, oder können aufgrund der aktiven Anregung getroffen werden.

For everyday cycling, one needs to carry rainproof clothing just for the case of unexpected downpours. In the present research, we present a concept for a helmet which is automatically rainproof when the rain starts. When the sun comes out, the helmet is breathable again even before it completely dries up. This functionality is provided by active hydrogel meshes. Hydrogel meshes offer great advantages due to their ability to change the aperture size with swelling and deswelling. In our current work, we present the design and modeling steps for hydrogel-layered active meshes which use (i) swelling and deswelling in hydrated state and (ii) swelling starting from the dry state. The main goal is to close the air openings of a bicycle helmet when rain starts as an automatic rainproofing. This can be achieved through the swelling of the hydrogel pNiPAAM-co-chlorophyllin in the meshes, which leads to closing when hydrated. At the same time, the light-sensitive behavior leads to opening of the apertures under direct sun exposure, i.e. when the sun appears again after the rain. We present the steps of modeling and design using the Normalized Extended Temperature-Expansion-Model (NETEM) to perform simulations in Abaqus. The model is capable of describing both the swelling of the hydrogel under light stimulus and the volume change due to hydration. It is based on the analogy between free swelling and thermal expansion and defined for nonlinear displacements. We also discuss the fabrication process of hydrogel-layered fibers and challenges in their application and simulation. As a proof of concept for hydrogel-layered meshes, we show preliminary experimental results of a poly(acrylamide)/poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid) (PAAm/PAMPS) hydrogel with semi-interpenetrated network (SIPN) structure and its swelling capacities on a mesh. Starting from the active hydrogel meshes as presented in the current work, the next step can be smart textiles that harness the powe

Kohlenstoffnanoröhren (Carbon Nanotubes, CNTs) gelten seit einigen Jahren als vielversprechendes neuartiges Material für verschiedenste Anwendungen in der Technik unterschiedlicher Fachgebiete. Von besonderem Interesse, z.B. in Leichtbaustrukturen, sind die postulierten exzellenten mechanischen Eigenschaften der einzelnen CNTs hinsichtlich Steifigkeit und Festigkeit. Diese auf der Nanoskala identifizierten Eigenschaften sollen auch in makroskopischen Bauteilen zu besonders guten mechanischen Eigenschaften führen. Demonstriert werden kann dies zum Beispiel an einer neuartigen Faser, die aus einer Vielzahl individueller Kohlenstoffnanoröhren gesponnen wurde. An dieser Faser durchgeführte Tests zeigen jedoch, dass die Eigenschaften nicht in der gewünschten Höhe von der Nanoskale auf die Makroskale übertragen werden. Um diesen Effekt erklären und evtl. beheben zu können, sowie für das Design von Strukturen aus Nanoröhren ('Superstrukturen') und einige weitere Anwendungen, sind Simulationsmodelle nötig, die die grundlegenden mechanischen (elastischen) Eigenschaften beschreiben können und zudem mit einer sehr großen Anzahl beteiligter CNTs und damit Atome umgehen können. Betrachtet man dies zusätzlich unter dem Aspekt, dass, beispielsweise zu Designzwecken, jeweils Rechnungen zu mehreren Varianten notwendig sind, ist verständlich, dass für jeden Durchlauf nur eine begrenzte Menge an Rechenzeit aufgebracht werden soll. Daher wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit ein mechanisches Modell der Kohlenstoffnanoröhren entwickelt, das die geforderte Aufgabe um ein Vielfaches schneller als quantenmechanische Methoden oder auch klassische Molekulardynamik behandeln kann. Basis hierfür ist ein molekularmechanischer Ansatz, der ein Ersatzmodell der betrachteten Kohlenstoffnanoröhre aus Balkenelementen erzeugt. Die zur Definition des Balkenfachwerks nötigen Balkeneigenschaften werden hierbei aus einem zugrundeliegenden chemischen Kraftfeld abgeleitet, das die kovalenten Bindungen zwischen de, For several years now, Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) are seen as a promising new material for manifold applications in new technologies from different fields. The predicted excellent mechanical properties such as high strength and stiffness are of particual interest e.g. in lightweight structures. The nanoscopic propertiers are prone to lead to good mechanical properties also in macrosopic parts. This can be demonstrated for instance on the basis of a novel type of carbon fiber which is spun out of a multitude of individual carbon nanotubes. However, tests of the fibre show that the outstanding properties on the nanoscale are not fully transfered to the macroscale. In order to explain this effect as well as for designing structures made out of nanotubes (so called super structures) and other applications, models for simulations are needed. These models should be capable of reproducing the basic (elastic) mechnical properties of the nanotubes as well as to be capcable of dealing with a large number of participating nanotubes and hence atoms. Considering the additional aspect that multiple calculations of similar systems, e.g. for design purposes, are required, it is easy to understand, that for each calculation only a limited amount of computational effort is affordable. Hence, in the present work a mechanical model for the carbon nanotubes is developed which can fulfil the requested task in a much shorter time than quantummechanical or moleculardynamic calculations. The model is based on a molecular mechanics approach which creates a substitute model for the carbon nanotube based on beam elements. The parameters mandatory to define the beam elements in the beam framework are obtained on the basis of a chemical force field forming the foundation of the approach. The chemical force fields describes the properties of the covalent bonds in the carbon nanotube. As a result, the proposed model can be classified to be part of the molecular structural mechanics (MSM) approaches.

Smart polymers are stimuli-responsive materials that undergo reversible and large changes of the material properties as a consequence of small environmental variations. Their light weight, biocompatibility, adaptability, mechanical strength and environment-friendly properties make them suitable for a wide range of applications, such as actuators, sensors and energy transducers. Despite their very interesting properties, there are still many problems which need to be solved. In particular, there is a high demand by the scientific community to develop advanced theoretical models which aim at understanding the complex and unclear phenomena occurring in smart polymers. In the present thesis, an innovative multiphysics electro-chemo-hydro-mechanical (ECHM) model is formulated within the framework of continuum mechanics. The proposed model assumes the solvent-ion-polymer mixture as a continuum homogenized body and takes into account four different physical fields, namely: (i) the electrical field, (ii) the chemical field related to the ion transport, (iii) the chemical field related to the water/solvent transport, and (iv) the mechanical field within the framework of large deformations. Couplings terms are derived at the constitutive level among the involved physical fields and allow to model a key aspect of smart polymers, i.e. the capability of transducing energy from one form to another. Reduced versions of the ECHM model are used to investigate, numerically and analytically, three particular problems involving smart polymers, namely: (i) the chemical reactions occurring at the interface between the polymer membrane and the electrodes of electrochemical cells, (ii) the electro-chemo-mechanical state of a single polymeric membrane within a stack of membranes, and (iii) the swelling/shrinking process of constrained and stressed polymer gels. The performed investigation confirm that the ECHM model and its reduced versions are capable of describing the complex multiphysics, Smarte Polymere sind stimulierbare Materialien, die, verursacht durch die Änderung ihrer Umgebung, eine reversible und große Änderung ihrer materiellen Eigenschaften erfahren. Ihr leichtes Gewicht, ihre Biokompatibilität, ihr Anpassungsvermögen, ihre mechanische Beanspruchbarkeit und ihre umgebungsfreundlichen Eigenschaften machen sie attraktiv für weite Anwendungsbereiche, z. B. als Aktoren, Sensoren oder Energiewandler. Trotz ihrer exzellenten Eigenschaften gibt es noch viele Probleme, die gelöst werden müssen. Insbesondere die Nachfrage nach fortgeschrittenen theoretischen Modellen mit dem Ziel die komplexen physikalischen Phänomene zu beschreiben, die in smarten Polymeren ablaufen, ist sehr hoch. In der eingereichten Doktorarbeit, wird ein elektro-chemo-hydro-mechanisches (ECHM) Modell basierend auf der Kontinuumsmechanik vorgestellt. In dem dargelegten Modell wird die Mischung aus Lösungsmittel, Ionen und Polymer als homogenisiertes Kontinuum betrachtet, wobei vier verschiedene physikalische Felder berücksichtigt werden: (i) das elektrische Feld, (ii) das auf den Ionentransport bezogene chemische Feld (iii) das auf den Wasser- bzw. den Lösungsmitteltransport bezogene chemische Feld und (iv) das mechanische Feld unter der Berücksichtigung von großen Deformationen. Kopplungsterme werden auf konstitutiver Ebene aus den beteiligten physikalischen Feldern abgeleitet. Die elektro-chemo-mechanische Kopplung erlaubt die Modellierung einer der wesentlichen Eigenschaften smarter Polymere, nämlich die Fähigkeit zur Umwandlung der verschiedenen Energieformen. Drei spezielle Problemstellungen von smarten Polymeren, wurden numerisch und analytisch auf Grundlage reduzierter Varianten des ECHM-Modells untersucht: (i) die auftretenden chemischen Reaktionen an der materiellen Grenzfläche zwischen Polymermembran und den Elektroden der elektrochemischen Zelle, (ii) das elektro-chemo-mechanische Verhalten einer einzelnen Polymer-membran in einem Membranstapel und (iii) der Quellung

Active membranes with switchable pores that are based on hydrogels can be used to measure the cell size distribution in blood samples. The system investigated in the present research is based on a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membrane that is surface polymerized with poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide) (PNiPAAm) to form active pores of arbitrary geometry. The PET membrane provides the functionality of a backbone for mechanical rigidity, while the soft PNiPAAm hydrogel forms the active pores. Modeling and simulation of the active hydrogel behavior proved to adequately predict the opening and closing of the pores under application of an activating stimulus, e.g. temperature. The applied model is called Temperature-Expansion-Model and uses the analogy of thermal expansion to model the volume swelling of hydrogels. The Normalized Extended Temperature-Expansion-Model can englobe arbitrary hydrogels and large geometric displacements. Studies of pore opening - performed by using commercial finite element tools - show good agreement of the experimentally measured shape change of active pores. Based on these studies, the particulate fluid flow through the switchable pores is analyzed. Through application of a membrane process, i.e. a given variation of applied pressure and switching stimulus for the hydrogel, the size profile of the blocking particles can be measured directly using the flux difference under constant pressure. This allows the measurement of the cell size distribution in blood samples, e.g. to detect circulating tumor cells or anomalies in the distribution that hint to anemia.

Switchable hydrogel-layered composite membranes can be used for the analysis of particle size distributions. This functionality is provided by pores with controllable diameter. In order to obtain a device that can be used to measure the cell size distribution in native biological samples, lots of switchable pores are required. In the current work, we model and simulate the mechanical behavior of active composite membranes with switchable pores. This is done in order to find the maximum number of pores that can be integrated into a membrane without cross-influencing effects on the actuation of the pores. Therefore, we investigate (1) the interaction of active pores inside the multifunctional composite and (2) the membrane bending under microfluidic pressure load. We show that through miniaturization, sufficient pores can be added to a permeation control membrane for processing native blood samples. The envisioned device allows a parallelized measurement of cell sizes in a simple lab-on-a-chip setup.

For passive (classical) materials, stress and strain are used to extract the material behavior from the sample behavior in a tensile test. In analogy, the actuation behavior of active (smart) materials can be normalized. In the present research, we show the normalization using the example of hydrogels that react with a volume change (swelling and deswelling) when exposed to stimulus-changes like temperature, chemical concentrations, pH or light intensity changes. The normalized behavior can then be implemented with the Temperature-Expansion-Model which is based on the analogy of active behavior with thermal expansion. This allows the simulation of arbitrary active structures and the extraction of the sensitivity measure to a stimulus.

The outstanding properties of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) keep attracting the attention of researchers from different fields. CNTs are promising candidates for applications e.g. in lightweight construction but also in electronics, medicine and many more. The basis for the realization of the manifold applications is a detailed knowledge of the material properties of the carbon nanotubes. In particular for applications in lightweight constructions or in composites, the knowledge of the mechanical behavior of the CNTs is of vital interest. Hence, a lot of effort is put into the experimental and theoretical determination of the mechanical material properties of CNTs. Due to their small size, special techniques have to be applied. In this research, a modified molecular structural mechanics model for the numerical determination of the mechanical behavior of carbon nanotubes is presented. It uses an advanced approach for the geometrical representation of the CNT structure while the covalent bonds in the CNTs are represented by beam elements. Furthermore, the model is specifically designed to overcome major drawbacks in existing molecular structural mechanics models. This includes energetic consistency with the underlying chemical force field. The model is developed further to enable the application of a more advanced chemical force field representation. The developed model is able to predict, inter alia, the lateral and radial stiffness properties of the CNTs. The results for the lateral stiffness are given and discussed in order to emphasize the progress made with the presented approach.

Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) are compliant capacitors, which are able to transduce electrical into mechanical energy and vice versa. As they may be applied in different surrounding conditions and in applications with alternating excitations, it is necessary to investigate both, the thermal behavior and the in fluence of the temperature change during operation. Due to mechanical and electrical loss mechanisms during the energy transfer, the DEA is subjected to an intrinsic heating. In detail, the dielectric material, which has viscoelastic properties, shows a mechanical hysteresis under varying mechanical loads. This behavior leads to a viscoelastic loss of energy in the polymer layer, resulting in a heating of the structure. The non-ideal conduction of the electrode provokes a resistive loss when charging and discharging the electrode layer. Operation with frequencies in the kilohertz-range leads to remarkable local heat dissipation. The viscoelastic material behavior and the resistivity are assumed to be dependent on the temperature and/or on the strain of the material. By this, a back-coupling from the thermal field to the mechanical field or the electrical field is observed. In order to provide a thermal equilibrium, also the convective cooling { the structure is subjected to { has to be considered. Depending on the frequency and the type of electrical driving signal and mechanical load, viscoelastic and resistive heating provide different contributions during the dynamic process. In the present study we capture the described effects within our modeling approach. For a given dielectric elastomer actuator, numerical investigations are performed for a given electrical load.

Nafion membranes, are polymeric thin films widely employed in micro-batteries and fuel cells. These devices are expected to play a key role in the next generation energy systems for use in vehicles as a replacement to combustion engines. In fact, a minimum environmental impact is guaranteed by reduced carbon dioxide emissions. It is usually complicated to investigate the behavior of thin membranes through experiments. Therefore, numerical simulations are carried out in order to enable a better understanding of the phenomena and of the multi-field couplings occurring in polymeric membranes. A continuum-based, three-dimensional and electro-chemo-mechanical (ECM) model for a hydrated polymer membrane is presented. Different effects are taken into account: (i) mechanics, (ii) water uptake, (iii) ion transport, and (iv) electrostatics. The dissipation inequality drives the choice of the suitable constitutive equations of the multi-physics theory. In the mechanical field, an additive decomposition of the deformation gradient in (i) a distortion part, related to the ion motion, and (ii) an elastic part, is assumed. The multi-field model is numerically solved within the finite element framework. Time-dependent simulations are performed by using the commercial tool COMSOL Multiphysics. Furthermore, two closed form solutions are obtained by using (i) a one-dimensional reduced model and (ii) an approach based on the bar theory with an electro-chemical distortion field.

Die schaltbare Filtration mithilfe von Hydrogel'=Verbundmembranen zeigt großes Potential zur Lösung einer der grundlegenden Aufgaben in der Humanmedizin: der unkomplizierten und schnellen Analyse von Blutproben zur Erkennung von Unregelmäßigkeiten, wie zum Beispiel zirkulierenden Tumorzellen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein solches System diskutiert und mithilfe von Methoden des Maschinenwesens -- Modellierung und Simulation -- untersucht. Das betrachtete System besteht aus einer aktiven Hydrogelschicht, welche auf einer passiven Polymerschicht aufgebracht ist und damit eine schaltbare Verbundmembran bildet. Die Arbeit folgt zwei Hauptpfaden: Im festkörpermechanischen Teil werden die mechanischen Aspekte von Verbundmembranen dargestellt, während im fluidmechanischen Teil die Permittivität und Selektivität von Membranen näher beleuchtet werden. Im Folgenden werden Modelle zur Schaltbarkeit ausgehend von aus der Literatur bekannten Ansätzen entwickelt. Diese werden dann im Rahmen von Simulationen -- sowohl im kommerziellen Finite-Elemente-Programm Abaqus, als auch in selbst geschriebenen Matlab-Codes -- umgesetzt. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt, dass ein schaltbares System zur Analyse von Zellgrößenprofilen realisierbar und durch Modellierung und Simulation in einem Maß beschreibbar ist, sodass der experimentellen Realisierung nichts mehr im Wege steht., Switchable filtration with hydrogel composite membranes shows great potential to solve one of the basic challenges in life sciences: the fast and easy analysis of blood samples to detect abnormal cells like e.g. circulating tumor cells. In the present work, a system providing these features is discussed using tools provided by engineering: modeling and simulation. The system consists of an active hydrogel composite membrane in combination with a passive polymeric membrane that provides mechanical stability. This forms a switchable composite membrane. The work follows two main paths: In the solid mechanics path, the composition of membranes and their mechanical aspects are discussed. The fluid mechanics path focuses on permittivity and selectivity for particle flows. Originating from the basic concepts of membrane permeation in literature, models for switchability are developed and simulations -- both in the commercial finite-element tool Abaqus and in Matlab scripts -- are performed. The present work proves that the concept of cell-size detection with switchable membranes is suitable for the task. Through the performed simulations, the corresponding processes can be described and designed so that the microfluidic analysis system can be experimentally realized.

In this work, a chemiresistor-type sensing platform based on aligned arrays of nitrogen-doped multi-walled carbon nanotubes (N-MWCNTs) was developed. Our N-MWCNT based sensors can be made on both rigid and flexible substrates; they are small, have low power consumption and are suitable for highly efficient and reliable detection of different biomolecules and gases, at room temperature. The performance of these sensors was demonstrated for avian influenza virus (AIV) subtype H5N1 DNA sequences and toxic gases NO and NH3 at low concentrations. In our study, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method was applied to synthesize vertically aligned nitrogen doped carbon nanotube arrays on a large area (> 1 cm2) on Si/SiO2 substrate using Fe/Al2O3 layer as a catalyst and a mixture of ethanol and acetonitrile as a C/N source. Especially, the diameter, length, nitrogen-doping concentration and morphology of the nanotubes were controllably tailored by adjusting the thickness of catalyst film, reaction duration and temperature as well as the amount of nitrogen-containing precursor. For integrating N-MWCNTs into chemiresistor devices, we developed a direct contact printing method for a dry, controllable and uniform transferring and positioning of the CVD-grown vertical nanotubes onto well-defined areas of various rigid and flexible substrates. After horizontally aligned N-MWCNT arrays were formed on a target substrate, interdigitated metallic microelectrodes with an interspacing of 3 µm were deposited perpendicular to the nanotube alignment direction to fabricate chemiresistor devices for biomolecule and gas sensing. This way, well-aligned nanotubes were laid across the Au/Cr interdigitated electrode fingers, had a strong adhesion with the electrodes and served as conducting channels bridging the electrodes. The N-MWCNT based chemiresistor device was applied as a label-free DNA sensor for a highly sensitive and fast detection of AIV subtype H5N1 DNA sequences. For this, the nanotube

Ionomeric polymer transducers have received considerable attention in the past ten years due to their ability to generate large bending strain and moderate stress at low applied voltages. Ionic polymer transducers consist of an ionomer, usually Nafion, sandwiched between two electrically conductive electrodes. Recently, a novel fabrication technique denoted as the direct assembly process (DAP) enabled controlled electrode architecture in ionic polymer transducers. A DAP transducer consists of two high surface area electrodes made of uniform distributed particles sandwiching an ionomer membrane. In this paper theoretical investigations as well as experimental verifications are performed. The model consists of a convection-diffusion equation describing the chemical field as well as a Poisson equation describing the electrical field. This modeling technique is modified to capture the chemo-electric behavior in the high surface area electrodes of a DAP fabricated transducer. The model assumes highly conductive particles randomly distributed in the electrode area. This is the first electro-chemical modeling account of high surface area electrodes in ionic polymer transducers. Traditionally, these kinds of electrodes were simulated with boundary conditions representing flat electrodes with a large dielectric permittivity at the polymer boundary. In the experimental section, several transducers are fabricated using the DAP process on Nafion 117 membranes. The architecture of the high surface area electrodes in these samples is varied. The concentration of the spherical gold particles is varied from 30 vol% up to 60 vol%, while the overall thickness of the electrode is varied from 10 &mgr;m up to 40 &mgr;m micrometer at a fixed concentration. The flux and charge accumulation in the materials are measured experimentally and compared to the results of the numerical simulations. Finally, the high surface area electrodes are compared to flat gold electrodes.