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The military and scientific leadership of Pakistan has given clear signals that tactical nuclear weapons have a vital role in Pakistan’s nuclear weapons policy. Developed to lower Pakistan’s nuclear threshold, these weapons may further deter India from launching a conventional strike to punish Pakistan for its sub-conventional war against India. This has led to a debate on the possible doctrinal responses that India could adopt to counter Pakistan’s tactical nuclear weapons. India could either make its current doctrine of massive retaliation more credible by appropriate signalling or it could revise the doctrine and develop its options of proportionate retaliation. Considering the limitations of both these options, the article argues for developing a doctrinal response that prescribes neither proportionate nor massively disproportionate retaliation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is manifestly in the American interest that nuclear weapons are never again used in war – but if they are, should the United States retaliate in kind? [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The United States should remain wary of offensive cyber war, but also able to make it count when no choice remains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research analyzed status quo of Chinese tea export, including export scale, exporting countries and regions, product structure, explored factors affecting tea export, and detailed international trade development of Chinese teas. On basis of global politics and economic situations, the research proposed new thoughts and countermeasures of global trades of Chinese teas with application of the Belt and Road Initiative strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Russia's absorption of Crimea violated the norm of territorial integrity, which protects states against involuntary loss of territory to other states. This article addresses two different arguments on how to deal with this violation: (1) That Ukraine lost Crimea for good and that this should be acknowledged, both politically and legally, if one seeks to forestall forcible change of interstate boundaries elsewhere; and (2) that third party countermeasures against Russia can roll back its territorial gains in Ukraine, but only if they are much more materially robust than they have been so far. While mutually incompatible, the arguments raise an important issue--how to uphold international legal norms in particular situations--an issue to which scholars of international law do not pay much detailed attention. Yet doing so is important because international legal norms leave governments with wider decision-making discretion than is commonly presumed, and different ways of upholding a norm are predisposed to generate different effects, including legal effects. Having examined the two approaches, the article argues that the best way to uphold the territorial integrity of Ukraine is by staking a middle ground between them, placing emphasis on the policy of non-recognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many international interactions are structured like a prisoner's dilemma because there are incentives to cooperate but also incentives to defect. In an infinitely repeated prisoner dilemma interaction, valuing the future highly enough by discounting the future less can ensure cooperation. Another factor that affects international cooperation in an infinitely repeated prisoner's dilemma interaction is how quickly actors can respond to defection with retaliation, in other words, the speed of retaliation. Speeding up retaliation to ensure cooperation is an attractive strategy because it is flexible. It can be adapted to the particular characteristics of a dyad of cooperation and can vary with different actors and even different forms of cooperation between the same two actors. An analysis of an infinitely repeated prisoner's dilemma interaction shows that if speeding up retaliation is costless, payoffs are constant in time, and the temptation payoff is reduced in proportion to the speed-up of retaliation, then no matter how unfavorable the starting discount factor and unfavorable the payoffs, speeding up retaliation can make cooperation sustainable. This, in combination with its inherent flexibility, makes speeding up retaliation a potentially powerful tool to make cooperation sustainable. Because speeding up retaliation likely has some implementation costs and because prisoner dilemma payoffs may not be constant/even in time, there are limits on when speeding up retaliation is effective. However, the analysis shows that if implementation costs are not too high, payoffs are not too uneven, or, if uneven in a particularly unfavorable way, punishment, when inflicted, is sufficiently punishing, then speeding up retaliation can still be effective in ensuring sustained cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In trying to explain the drivers of global profit shifting by multinational enterprises (MNEs), we investigate firm-specific determinants and their variation across major industries. Using the ORBIS database, we show that intangible asset endowment of subsidiaries and the supply-chain complexity of MNE groups explain aggregate profit-shifting trends. According to our estimates, subsidiaries with no intangibles react to an incremental increase of the tax rate by reducing reported profits by 0.76 %, while subsidiaries with above median intangible endowment decrease their profits by 1.2 %. This difference is significant at the 5 % level. We find an even more pronounced difference in the observed semi-elasticities comparing affiliates belonging to simple ( $$-$$ 0.52) and more complex MNEs ( $$-$$ 1.92), suggesting a significantly larger sensitivity to CIT rate changes of the latter group. Moreover, we incorporate country-specific transfer pricing mitigation measures (documentation requirements) into our analysis. We find significant mitigation effects, which vary depending on the drivers identified in our analysis. On average, estimated profit shifting among MNE subsidiaries in our sample is reduced by 52 % 2 years after the introduction of mandatory documentation requirements. We do, however, not find a significant effect on affiliates with high intangible endowments, whereas documentation reduces profit shifting of subsidiaries within complex MNE groups. Our analysis suggests that complexity poses less of a challenge to effective domestic enforcement than the appropriate pricing of intangible assets. These findings thus provide additional insights on profit-shifting risks and mitigation effects conditional on firm attributes, which may support the design of anti-avoidance approaches and help guide the allocation of scarce analytical and enforcement resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deliberately set school fires cause significant economic, material, and social damage to society. This article aims to contribute to a sociological understanding and explanation of school fires set by juveniles and to the development of effective prevention strategies based on the results obtained. The study draws upon comprehensive empirical data from qualitative and quantitative research consisting of a questionnaire survey, substantive interviews, and document analysis. The findings show firesetting to be a complex, multifaceted phenomenon, which calls for a diversified approach to prevention relying on structural, situational, and social interventions. While juveniles setting schools on fire appear in many respects to be similar to other youths engaged in delinquent behaviours in society, the fires they set can be internally categorized according to firesetting motive, offender characteristics, and modus operandi. The implications of the resulting typology of six main types of school fires for prevention work are discussed, with practical suggestions for effective countermeasures offered. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The situation of intercepted weeds from wool in Jiangsu port during 2004 to 2012 was introduced in this paper, and the corresponding countermeasures were then proposed. The results showed that a total of 38 families, 138 genera, 268 species and 13 868 species-times of weeds were intercepted, including 3 families, 11 genera, 20 species and 2 094 species-times of quarantine weeds. The weeds were intercepted from the wool introduced from 19 countries and regions, among which, Australia had the highest species-times, accounting for 71.0% of the total. Bases on the analysis of interception situation of weeds, some countermeasures were proposed from the perspectives of risk assessment, quarantine supervision, quarantine treatment and epidemic surveillance, providing some reference for establishing a perfect system for preventing the invasion of exotic weeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maritime shipping is a set of complex activities with a large number of actors involved. We focus on a subset of illegal maritime activities, such as armed robberies, maritime piracy or contraband smuggling. To fight against them and minimize their negative impact naval authorities typically introduce a number of countermeasures, such as deployed patrols or surveillance agents. Due to very high costs of countermeasures it is often beneficial to evaluate their impact using a simulation, allowing what-if analysis and evaluation of a range of scenarios before actually deploying the countermeasures. We introduce BANDIT, an agent-based computational platform, which is designed to evaluate scenarios with an accent on the modeling of different types of illegal behavior and on the interaction between agents. The platform consists of an agent behavior modeling system and a multi-agent maritime simulator. The platform allows the definition of a number of scenarios through a simple configuration and it offers the means to run these scenarios in a single or a batch mode and evaluate the results as single or aggregate data sets respectively. We demonstrate the usefulness of the platform on the scenarios of the drug smuggling problem in the seas surrounding Central America. Senario outcomes (e.g., heatmaps of activities, set of trajectories etc.) are subsequently used to help with the design of effective countermeasures, i.e., allocating naval patrols and planning their patrol routes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This introduction sets the stage for the articles collected in this special issue of Oxford Economic Papers. It begins by introducing essential concepts including domestic terrorism, transnational terrorism, defensive actions, proactive countermeasures, and guerrilla warfare. Three terrorist event databases, used by seven of the articles, are briefly introduced. These data sets are then used to display some stylized facts about domestic and transnational terrorism during the past four decades. Next, some essential strategic distinctions are drawn between defensive and proactive measures in the case of transnational terrorism when multiple countries are confronted by a common terrorist group. These strategic concerns vanish for domestic terrorism as a central government is able to internalize potential externalities. Finally, the key findings of the articles in the special issue are highlighted in two tables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to one interpretive strand of the Christian moral tradition, charity requires complete renunciation of violence in all its forms. One should not summarily dismiss this view as extreme or unrepresentative of Christian teaching. After all, sacred Scripture urges us to love our neighbors (including our enemies) and repudiate wanton aggression, hatred, and personal reprisals. Yet while charity would have us disavow all varieties of malicious acts and urges, it is not obvious that it forbids using potentially lethal force. Relying on insights from Aquinas, I argue that charity may not only permit but require such force in order to combat the cruelty and aggression directed at our beloved or those in our care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When may states impose coercive measures such as asset freezes, trade embargos, and investment restrictions to protect the human rights of foreign nationals abroad? Drawing inspiration from Hugo Grotius's guardianship account of humanitarian intervention, this Article offers a new theory of states' standing to enforce human rights abroad: under some circumstances, international law authorizes states to impose countermeasures as fiduciary representatives, asserting the human rights of oppressed foreign peoples for the benefit of those peoples. The fiduciary theory explains why all states may use countermeasures to vindicate the human rights of foreign nationals abroad despite the fact that they do not suffer any injury to their own independent legal interests when another state violates the human rights of its own people. But the fiduciary theory also constrains foreign intervention by prescribing a robust set of legal duties that respect the self-determination and human rights of foreign peoples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, I investigate trade relations between Norway and China after the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Liu Xiaobo, a leading Chinese dissident. It is a case study o f China's political use of economic levers in its international relations. Concluding that Sino-Norwegian trade relationship did not suffer the severe impact that many predicted, I argue that the threshold for China to enact punitive economic actions seems higher than is often acknowledged. China's sensitivity is to the costs and benefits of the relevant country's trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using the Scarborough Shoal standoff between China and the Philippines as a case study, in this article I examine two approaches to addressing territorial disputes-power politics and liberalismlegalism. China, a major power, uses realpolitik to press its expansive claim in the South China Sea. The Philippines, a small power, adopts the liberal-legal approach that seeks to balance against China. During the standoff, China drove the Philippines out of the shoal, though stopping short of an armed clash, and effected a de lacto occupation of the contested area. As a countermeasure, the Philippines filed a statement of claim with the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. The confrontation was a test of Thucydides's age-old aphorism that "the strong do what they have the power to do, and the weak accept what they have to accept." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to argue that privacy, rather than serving only as a countermeasure against surveillance, can also be seen as its ‘partner-in-crime’. Normative statements made by governments and companies on privacy can be regarded as a tool of governance in service of informational capitalism. Initially defined as a fundamental freedom, privacy has become a precondition for a blossoming economy in the context of the information society. The notion of privacy, as a critique of information society, has been assimilated and reshaped by and in favour of informational capitalism, notably by being over-individualized through the self-determination principle. To develop this idea, this article builds on the results of a study on the loyalty programmes run by the four biggest retailers of Switzerland and on the Foucauldian concept of biopower. Indeed, sexual liberation and the development of scientific knowledge on sexuality, the democratization of privacy, and the emergence of scientific discourses about privacy are processes that show intriguing similarities. Like sexuality, privacy has become a ‘power-knowledge’ related to moral standards defining what privacy should be. It produces ‘subjects of privacy’ who are supposed to take care of it according to the official conception of privacy advocates and of the legislature. Finally, we suggest understanding the conception of privacy as a terrain of power struggle between the promoters of an informational capitalism based on surveillance of citizens and consumers, and those who would prefer to promote privacy as a common good leading society to more democracy and freedom. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

ABSTRACT The growing economic importance of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) makes it rewarding for malevolent people to aim at misleading receivers in their position and time estimation. This can be achieved by replacing or superposing signals to the authentic GNSS satellite signals and is called spoofing. Most current receivers are not designed to detect spoofing. The present article aims at a systematic exposition of threats. In many cases, they can be addressed by comparing the received signals, the estimated states, and their respective dynamics against models. A cryptographic signature of the navigation message would furthermore improve the detectability of fake synthetic signals, and should be implemented in the definition of new GNSS signals. In general, the analysis of spoofing should receive the same attention as the analysis of natural impairments. We hope that the present paper will contribute to achieve this. Copyright © 2014 Institute of Navigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the global concern about the safety of the environment and the increasing demands for carbon reduction, European countries have proposed to levy a carbon tax to reduce global carbon emissions. In the process of global trade, depending on advanced technology on carbon emissions, European and American countries raise the production cost of their competitors through a carbon tax to gain competitive advantage. The West's carbon tax will inevitably have serious implications for the export trade of China as a trading nation. As the central region, Hubei Province's export trade will also be affected. This paper first reviewed the background of carbon tariffs on the international market, then analyzed the impact of a carbon tax on exports of Hubei Province, and proposed relevant policies and countermeasures against trade barriers on a carbon tax at last. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural branding is an important mark of agricultural modernization. Enshi Prefecture of Hubei Province is reputed as "Tobacco Kingdom" and "World Capital of Selenium". It is also the key production area of flue-cured tobacco, burley tobacco and selenium-enriched tobacco. The tobacco industry has become a pillar industry of Enshi Prefecture. This paper firstly introduces tobacco resource and industry of Enshi Prefecture. Then, it analyzes countermeasures for tobacco branding and industrial development. Finally, it comes up with several constructive recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the concept of coercion in relation to international law and the creation of additional weapon-related technologies as of 2014. The jus in bello use of force legal doctrine is addressed, along with military-related retaliatory measures and the war-related views of international organizations. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling, & Use of Chemical Weapons & on Their Destruction is examined, along with a just war doctrine.

Drought is one of the major disasters around the world which cause great social and economic hardship. Recent events of severe droughts have motivated comprehensive research on drought management in China like many other countries of Asia, Europe and Africa. In this paper, the mechanism of drought management has been analyzed in light of water supply and water demand management considering water shortage as an inductor of drought. Catastrophe theory has been proposed to explain transitions through discontinuities and unexpected changes in water system. The study indicates that supply management can increase water supply; however, in long term, it may not be sustainable for drought mitigation. Water demand management, on the other hand, improves water use efficiency with less investment. Therefore, the study emphasizes water demand managements for drought management under future changing scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the night of March 5, 1955, Meir Har-Zion set out with three friends to avenge the murder of his sister and her boyfriend in the Judean Desert (in Jordanian territory), about two months earlier. They murdered five innocent Jordanian Bedouins and crossed back into Israel. Upon their return, they were placed under arrest and held until the end of March. This article examines the changes in Israeli perceptions of Har-Zion's reprisal act over the course of thirty years, from the mid-1950s to the mid-1980s, in order to shed light on the ways in which collective memory is molded in Israel as well as on the changes in Israeli society's attitude toward the issue of revenge and retaliation, from understanding and even admiration to condemnation and delegitimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The effective use of those local wisdoms is strongly desired, especially in developing countries, because it is quite difficult for those countries to allocate enough budgets for constructing hard-type countermeasures against tsunami. Among local wisdoms against tsunami hazard, this study evaluated the efficiency of a hollow topography which can be seen on the beach along Lampon village in Indonesia. These artificial hollows are arrayed on the beach as one of the local wisdoms in Lampon village to reduce the intensity of inundated tsunami flow. The numerical simulation of tsunami inundation energy was conducted to evaluate the efficiency of this hollow topography. In order to investigate the effect of artificial topography and vegetation belt, this study conducted a numerical simulation utilizing CADMAS-SURF 3D. Furthermore, this study evaluated the efficiency of some contrivances, such as combination of vegetation belts and a multiple-use of hollow and embankment topography, in order to enhance the performance of a countermeasure based on the local wisdom. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This article proposes that there are four primary types of suicide terrorist: (1) conventional suicide terrorists, who become suicidal owing to classic risk factors, (2) coerced suicide terrorists, who become suicidal because they fear the organizational consequences of not carrying out attacks, (3) escapist suicide terrorists, who become suicidal because they fear being captured by the enemy, and (4) indirect suicide terrorists, who become suicidal at an unconscious level and orchestrate their deaths in ways that disguise their desire to die. It then outlines behavioral expectations for each type, in terms of warning signs, tactical experience and attack styles, and concludes with recommendations for security countermeasures and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Examination of the origin of the concept of alternative futures developed by the West. [•] Exploration of the main reasons of why Korea needs alternative futures discourses. [•] Demonstration of several countermeasures for overcoming the limits of Korea's futures practice. [•] Discussion of some general ideas for improvement of Korean futures studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Safeguarding children is one of our nation's foremost obligations. We have both a fundamental duty to protect individual children from undue risk during research and an obligation to protect all children during an emergency-to the extent ethically and practically possible-by being prepared both with the fruits of scientifically and ethically sound research and with a fulsome national readiness to respond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I analyze the substance and goals of China's antisatellite program. Following China's 2007 antisatellite test that successfully destroyed one of its aging satellites, signs have emerged that China is continuing to research ways to exploit the heavy US reliance on space. This capability is most likely being developed as an "assassin's mace" to gain an advantage against a technologically superior enemy in the event of conflict. I propose a number of countermeasures to negate the threat to US space security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cambodian Malay-Cham are a single community descended from the Malay Archipelago and the once famous Kingdom of Champa, who have played leading roles in the civil and military administration of their adopted homeland since the fifteenth century. During the nineteenth century however, there was a rebellion led by a Malay-Cham minority against the governor of Cambodia's eastern province that forced military retaliation by King Ang Duong to crush the rebel force. This article discusses the reasons for, and chronology of, the uprising from a close reading of the contemporary Cham manuscript known as CM39(36). In particular, it considers the role of 'Po', a Malay-Cham prince who sided with the Cambodian King in his efforts to defeat the rebels. Po and his followers earned the King's trust and, as a reward, they were allowed to settle in western Cambodia. CM39(36) offers a detailed description of the rebellion, the Malay-Cham's subsequent journey to western Cambodia, as well as the relationship between the Malay-Cham and the indigenous Khmers from their first arrival in Cambodia to their resettlement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid development of regional economic integration, the desire to promote the economic development of border areas through the construction of cross-border economic cooperation zones exits in my land neighbors around and my country, thus cross-border economic cooperation zones in my land neighboring countries and mine have obtained rapid development. But because they are still new affairs, in the process of groping construction, foreign affairs, law, management, technology, and many problems such as how to achieve win-win situation still exist. We need to draw lessons from successful experience at home and abroad to gain enlightenment, and make considerations from strategy, tactically take a series of comprehensive countermeasures to promote it, in order to serve China's peripheral diplomacy and the purpose of economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-Strait détente in the wake of China's rise presents the United States a greater challenge in selling new, advanced weaponry to Taiwan, owing to the political unpredictability of cross-Strait relations and the insurmountable task of maintaining a military balance across the Taiwan Strait. In contrast to the Bush administration, the Obama administration is more concerned about China's retaliation against U.S. defense corporations involved in arms sales to Taiwan and the maintenance of Sino-American strategic stability. The United States is faced with warming cross- Strait relations and Taiwan's unknown political destiny with China, complicating faithful implementation of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) by the United States. The rise of China has further constrained U.S. policymakers in their deliberation of arms sales to Taiwan. With the signature of 19 cross-Strait functional agreements and all kinds of interflows, Beijing has some evidence-backed arguments that the United States should cease arms sales to Taiwan in accordance with the August 17, 1982 Communiqué. A policy of actively implementing the TRA and providing Taiwan with the most advanced weapons is becoming harder to implement, but the TRA is not moribund unless Beijing renounces the use of force against Taiwan, or Taipei enters a process of political negotiation leading to final settlement of its status with China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Firstly, the current situation and existing problems of modern agricultural construction in Bijie experimental area were analyzed, and then the countermeasures of promoting construction and sustainable development of modern agriculture were proposed according to the reality of agricultural development in the Bijie experimental area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]